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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 112            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 113        ),
 114        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 117        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 118        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 119        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 120        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 121        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 122        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 123        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 124        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 129        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 131        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 133            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 134        ),
 135        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 150        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 152        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 153        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 154        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 155        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 156        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 157        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 159        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 161    }
 162
 163    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 164    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 165    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 166
 167    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 168    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 169    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 170
 171    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 172    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 173
 174    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 175    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 176
 177    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 178    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 179
 180    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 181    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 182
 183    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 184    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 185
 186    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 187    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 188
 189    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 190    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 193    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 196    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 197
 198    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 199    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 200
 201    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 202    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 203
 204    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 205    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 206
 207    # Whether join hints should be generated
 208    JOIN_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether table hints should be generated
 211    TABLE_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether query hints should be generated
 214    QUERY_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 217    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 218
 219    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 220    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 221
 222    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 223    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 226    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 227
 228    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 229    RETURNING_END = True
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 348    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 364
 365    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 366    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 367
 368    # The HEX function name
 369    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 370
 371    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 372    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 373
 374    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 375    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 376
 377    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 378    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 379
 380    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 381        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 391    }
 392
 393    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 394        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 395        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 396        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 397        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 398        "DAYS": "DAY",
 399        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 400        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 401        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 402        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 403    }
 404
 405    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 406        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 407        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 408        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 409        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 410        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 411            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 412            if e.args.get("windows")
 413            else ""
 414        ),
 415    }
 416
 417    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 418
 419    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 420
 421    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 422    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 423
 424    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 425        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 427        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 450        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 453        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 463        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 467        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 469        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 472        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 475        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 489        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 496        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 505        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506    }
 507
 508    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 509    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 510
 511    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 512    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 513        exp.Create,
 514        exp.Delete,
 515        exp.Drop,
 516        exp.From,
 517        exp.Insert,
 518        exp.Join,
 519        exp.Select,
 520        exp.SetOperation,
 521        exp.Update,
 522        exp.Where,
 523        exp.With,
 524    )
 525
 526    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 527    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 528        exp.Binary,
 529        exp.SetOperation,
 530    )
 531
 532    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 533    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 534        exp.Column,
 535        exp.Literal,
 536        exp.Neg,
 537        exp.Paren,
 538    )
 539
 540    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 541        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 542        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 543        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 544        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 545    }
 546
 547    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 548    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 549
 550    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 551
 552    __slots__ = (
 553        "pretty",
 554        "identify",
 555        "normalize",
 556        "pad",
 557        "_indent",
 558        "normalize_functions",
 559        "unsupported_level",
 560        "max_unsupported",
 561        "leading_comma",
 562        "max_text_width",
 563        "comments",
 564        "dialect",
 565        "unsupported_messages",
 566        "_escaped_quote_end",
 567        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 568        "_next_name",
 569    )
 570
 571    def __init__(
 572        self,
 573        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 574        identify: str | bool = False,
 575        normalize: bool = False,
 576        pad: int = 2,
 577        indent: int = 2,
 578        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 579        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 580        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 581        leading_comma: bool = False,
 582        max_text_width: int = 80,
 583        comments: bool = True,
 584        dialect: DialectType = None,
 585    ):
 586        import sqlglot
 587        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 588
 589        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 590        self.identify = identify
 591        self.normalize = normalize
 592        self.pad = pad
 593        self._indent = indent
 594        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 595        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 596        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 597        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 598        self.comments = comments
 599        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 600
 601        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 602        self.normalize_functions = (
 603            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 604        )
 605
 606        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 607        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 608            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 609        )
 610        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 611            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 612        )
 613
 614        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 615
 616    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 617        """
 618        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 619
 620        Args:
 621            expression: The syntax tree.
 622            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 623                it is safer to copy.
 624
 625        Returns:
 626            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 627        """
 628        if copy:
 629            expression = expression.copy()
 630
 631        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 632
 633        self.unsupported_messages = []
 634        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 635
 636        if self.pretty:
 637            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 638
 639        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 640            return sql
 641
 642        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 643            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 644                logger.warning(msg)
 645        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 646            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 647
 648        return sql
 649
 650    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 651        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 652        if (
 653            not expression.parent
 654            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 655            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 656        ):
 657            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 658
 659            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 660
 661        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 662            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 663
 664            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 665
 666        return expression
 667
 668    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 669        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 670            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 671        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 672
 673    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 674        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 675
 676    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 677        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 678
 679    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 680        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 681        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 682        return comment
 683
 684    def maybe_comment(
 685        self,
 686        sql: str,
 687        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 688        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 689        separated: bool = False,
 690    ) -> str:
 691        comments = (
 692            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 693            if self.comments
 694            else None
 695        )
 696
 697        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 698            return sql
 699
 700        comments_sql = " ".join(
 701            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 702        )
 703
 704        if not comments_sql:
 705            return sql
 706
 707        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 708
 709        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 710            return (
 711                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 712                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 713                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 714            )
 715
 716        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 717
 718    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 719        this_sql = (
 720            self.sql(expression)
 721            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 722            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 723        )
 724        if not this_sql:
 725            return "()"
 726
 727        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 728        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 729
 730    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 731        original = self.identify
 732        self.identify = False
 733        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 734        self.identify = original
 735        return result
 736
 737    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 738        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 739            return name.upper()
 740        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 741            return name.lower()
 742        return name
 743
 744    def indent(
 745        self,
 746        sql: str,
 747        level: int = 0,
 748        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 749        skip_first: bool = False,
 750        skip_last: bool = False,
 751    ) -> str:
 752        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 753            return sql
 754
 755        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 756        lines = sql.split("\n")
 757
 758        return "\n".join(
 759            (
 760                line
 761                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 762                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 763            )
 764            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 765        )
 766
 767    def sql(
 768        self,
 769        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 770        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 771        comment: bool = True,
 772    ) -> str:
 773        if not expression:
 774            return ""
 775
 776        if isinstance(expression, str):
 777            return expression
 778
 779        if key:
 780            value = expression.args.get(key)
 781            if value:
 782                return self.sql(value)
 783            return ""
 784
 785        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 786
 787        if callable(transform):
 788            sql = transform(self, expression)
 789        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 790            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 791
 792            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 793                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 794            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 795                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 796            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 797                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 798            else:
 799                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 800        else:
 801            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 802
 803        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 804
 805    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 806        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 807        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 809
 810    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 811        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 812        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        options = expression.args.get("options")
 814        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 815        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 816        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 817        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 818        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 819
 820    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 821        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 822            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 823        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 824        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 825
 826    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 827        return ".".join(
 828            self.sql(part)
 829            for part in (
 830                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 831                expression.args.get("db"),
 832                expression.args.get("table"),
 833                expression.args.get("this"),
 834            )
 835            if part
 836        )
 837
 838    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 839        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 840
 841        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 842            join_mark = ""
 843            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 844
 845        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 846
 847    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 851        return f"{position}{this}"
 852
 853    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 854        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 856        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 857        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 858        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 859        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 860        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 861        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 862
 863        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 864            kind = ""
 865
 866        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 867
 868    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 871        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 872
 873    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 876            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 877        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 878            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 879        else:
 880            persisted = ""
 881        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 882
 883    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 884        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 885
 886    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 888            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 889        else:
 890            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 891
 892        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 893
 894    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 895        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 896    ) -> str:
 897        this = ""
 898        if expression.this is not None:
 899            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 900            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 901
 902        start = expression.args.get("start")
 903        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 904        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 905        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 906        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 907        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 908        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 909        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 910        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 911        cycle_sql = ""
 912
 913        if cycle is not None:
 914            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 915            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 916
 917        sequence_opts = ""
 918        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 919            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 920            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 921
 922        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 923        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 924
 925        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 926
 927    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 928        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 929    ) -> str:
 930        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 931        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 932        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 933
 934    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 935        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 936    ) -> str:
 937        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 938
 939    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 940        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 941
 942    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 944
 945    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 947        if desc is not None:
 948            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 949        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 950
 951    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 954        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 955        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 956        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 957        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 958        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 959
 960    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 961        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 962
 963    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 965        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 966        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 967
 968        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 969
 970        properties_sql = ""
 971        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 972            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 973        ):
 974            properties_sql = self.sql(
 975                exp.Properties(
 976                    expressions=[
 977                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 979                    ]
 980                )
 981            )
 982
 983            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 984                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 985            elif not self.pretty:
 986                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 987                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 988
 989        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 990        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 993        if expression_sql:
 994            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 995
 996            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 997                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 998                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                        exp.Properties(
1000                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1001                        ),
1002                        wrapped=False,
1003                    )
1004                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1005                else:
1006                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1007
1008        postindex_props_sql = ""
1009        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1010            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1011                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1012                wrapped=False,
1013                prefix=" ",
1014            )
1015
1016        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1017        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1018        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1019
1020        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1021        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1022
1023        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1025            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1027                sep=" ",
1028                prefix=" ",
1029                wrapped=False,
1030            )
1031
1032        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1033
1034        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1035        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1036            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1037                exp.Properties(
1038                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1039                ),
1040                sep=" ",
1041                prefix=" ",
1042                wrapped=False,
1043            )
1044
1045        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1046        no_schema_binding = (
1047            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1048        )
1049
1050        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1051        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1052
1053        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1054        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1055
1056    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1057        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1058        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1059        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1060        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1061        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1062        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1063        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1064        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1065        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1066        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1067
1068        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1069        if cache is None:
1070            cache_str = ""
1071        elif cache is True:
1072            cache_str = " CACHE"
1073        else:
1074            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1075
1076        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1077        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1078
1079        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1080
1081    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1084        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1085        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1086
1087    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1088        style = expression.args.get("style")
1089        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1090        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1091
1092    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1093        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1094        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1095
1096    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1097        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1098        if with_:
1099            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1100        return sql
1101
1102    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1103        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1104        recursive = (
1105            "RECURSIVE "
1106            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1107            else ""
1108        )
1109
1110        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1111
1112    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1114
1115        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1116        if materialized is False:
1117            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1118        elif materialized:
1119            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1120
1121        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1122
1123    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1124        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1126        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1127
1128        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1129            columns = ""
1130            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1131
1132        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1133            alias = self._next_name()
1134
1135        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1136
1137    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1139        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1140            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1141        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1142
1143    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1146            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1147        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1148
1149    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1152            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1153        return this
1154
1155    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1158
1159        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1160            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1161            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1162        else:
1163            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1164            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1165
1166        if escape:
1167            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1168            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1169        else:
1170            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1171            escape_sql = ""
1172
1173        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1174            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1175
1176        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1177
1178    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1179        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1180        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1181
1182    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1185        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1186        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1187
1188    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1189        type_value = expression.this
1190
1191        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1192            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1193        else:
1194            type_sql = (
1195                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1196                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1197                else type_value
1198            )
1199
1200        nested = ""
1201        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1202        values = ""
1203
1204        if interior:
1205            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1206                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1207                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1208                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1209                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1210                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1211            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1212                nested = f" {interior}"
1213            else:
1214                nested = f"({interior})"
1215
1216        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1217        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1218            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1219            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1220        ):
1221            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1222
1223        return type_sql
1224
1225    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1226        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1227        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1228        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1229        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1230
1231    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1234        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1235        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1236        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1239        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1240        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1241        if self.RETURNING_END:
1242            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1243        else:
1244            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1245        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1246
1247    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1250        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1251        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1252        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1253        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1254        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1255        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1256        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1257        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1258        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1259        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1260        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1261
1262    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1263        return self.set_operations(expression)
1264
1265    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1266        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1267
1268    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1269        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1270        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1271        count = expression.args.get("count")
1272        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1273        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1274            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1275        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1276        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1277
1278    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1279        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1280            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1282            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1283
1284        agg = expression.this
1285        agg_arg = agg.this
1286        cond = expression.expression.this
1287        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1288        return self.sql(agg)
1289
1290    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1291        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1292            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1293            return ""
1294
1295        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1296
1297    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1298        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1299        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1300        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1301        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1302        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1303        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1304        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1305        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1306        if include:
1307            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1308        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1309        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1310        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1311        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1314
1315        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1316
1317    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1318        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1319        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1320        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1321        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1323        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1324        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1325
1326        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1327
1328        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1329        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1330
1331    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1332        text = expression.name
1333        lower = text.lower()
1334        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1335        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1336        if (
1337            expression.quoted
1338            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1339            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1340            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1341        ):
1342            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1343        return text
1344
1345    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1346        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1347        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1348            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1349
1350        return text
1351
1352    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1353        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1354        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1355            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1356        return text
1357
1358    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1359        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1360        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1361        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1362        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1363        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1364
1365    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1366        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1367        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1368
1369    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1370        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1371
1372    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1373        root_properties = []
1374        with_properties = []
1375
1376        for p in expression.expressions:
1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1378            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1379                with_properties.append(p)
1380            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1381                root_properties.append(p)
1382
1383        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1384        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1385
1386        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1387            with_props = " " + with_props
1388
1389        return root_props + with_props
1390
1391    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1392        if properties.expressions:
1393            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1394        return ""
1395
1396    def properties(
1397        self,
1398        properties: exp.Properties,
1399        prefix: str = "",
1400        sep: str = ", ",
1401        suffix: str = "",
1402        wrapped: bool = True,
1403    ) -> str:
1404        if properties.expressions:
1405            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1406            if expressions:
1407                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1408                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1409        return ""
1410
1411    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1412        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1413
1414    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1415        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1416        for p in properties.expressions:
1417            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1418            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1419                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1420            else:
1421                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1422
1423        return properties_locs
1424
1425    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1426        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1428        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1429
1430    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1431        property_cls = expression.__class__
1432        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1433            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1434
1435        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1436        if not property_name:
1437            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1438
1439        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1440
1441    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1442        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1443            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1444            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1445
1446            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1447            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1448                like = f"({like})"
1449
1450            return like
1451
1452        if expression.expressions:
1453            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1454
1455        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1456        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1457
1458    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1459        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1460        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1461        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1462
1463    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1464        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1465        local = expression.args.get("local")
1466        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1467        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1468        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1469        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1470        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1471
1472    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1473        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1475        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1476
1477    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1478        if expression.args.get("default"):
1479            property = "DEFAULT"
1480        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1481            property = "ON"
1482        else:
1483            property = "OFF"
1484        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1485
1486    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1487        if expression.args.get("no"):
1488            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1489        if expression.args.get("default"):
1490            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1491
1492        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1493        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1494
1495    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1496        default = expression.args.get("default")
1497        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1498        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1499        if default or minimum or maximum:
1500            if default:
1501                prop = "DEFAULT"
1502            elif minimum:
1503                prop = "MINIMUM"
1504            else:
1505                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1506            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1507        units = expression.args.get("units")
1508        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1509        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1510
1511    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1512        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1513        always = expression.args.get("always")
1514        default = expression.args.get("default")
1515        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1516        never = expression.args.get("never")
1517
1518        if autotemp is not None:
1519            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1520        elif always:
1521            prop = "ALWAYS"
1522        elif default:
1523            prop = "DEFAULT"
1524        elif manual:
1525            prop = "MANUAL"
1526        elif never:
1527            prop = "NEVER"
1528        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1529
1530    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1531        no = expression.args.get("no")
1532        no = " NO" if no else ""
1533        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1534        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1535        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1536        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1537        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1538
1539    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1540        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1541            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1542        if expression.this:
1543            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1545            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1546
1547        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1548        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1549        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1550
1551    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553
1554        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1555        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1556            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1557        else:
1558            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1559
1560        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1561
1562    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1563        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1564        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1565        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1566        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1567        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1568        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1569        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1570
1571    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1572        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1573        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1574        statistics_sql = ""
1575        if statistics is not None:
1576            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1577        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1578
1579    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1582        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1583        data_consistency = (
1584            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1585        )
1586        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1587        retention_period = (
1588            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1589        )
1590
1591        if this:
1592            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1593        else:
1594            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1595
1596        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1597
1598        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1599
1600    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1601        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1602        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1603
1604        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1605            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1606        else:
1607            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1608
1609        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1610        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1611        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1612        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1613        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1614        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1615        if is_function:
1616            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1617        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1618
1619        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1620        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1621        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1622        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1623        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1624        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1625        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1626        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1627
1628        if self.RETURNING_END:
1629            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1630        else:
1631            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1632
1633        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1634        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1635
1636    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1637        return self.set_operations(expression)
1638
1639    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1640        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1641
1642    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1643        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1644
1645    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1646        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1647        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1649        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1650        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1651
1652    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1653        return expression.name
1654
1655    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1656        return expression.name
1657
1658    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1659        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1660
1661        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1662        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1663
1664        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1665        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1666        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1667
1668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1669        if expressions:
1670            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1671            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1672
1673        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1674
1675    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1676        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1677
1678    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1679        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1680        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1681        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1682        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1683        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1684        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1685        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1686        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1687        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1688        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1689        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1690        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1691        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1692
1693    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1694        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1695
1696    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1697        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1698        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1699        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1700        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1701
1702    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1705        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1706        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1707
1708    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1709        return ".".join(
1710            self.sql(part)
1711            for part in (
1712                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1713                expression.args.get("db"),
1714                expression.args.get("this"),
1715            )
1716            if part is not None
1717        )
1718
1719    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1720        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1721        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1722        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1723        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1724        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1725        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1726        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1727        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1728        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1729        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1730        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1731        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1732        joins = self.indent(
1733            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1734        )
1735        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1736
1737        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1738        if file_format:
1739            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1740            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1741            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1742
1743        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1744        if ordinality:
1745            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1746            alias = ""
1747
1748        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1749        if when:
1750            table = f"{table} {when}"
1751
1752        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1753
1754    def tablesample_sql(
1755        self,
1756        expression: exp.TableSample,
1757        sep: str = " AS ",
1758        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1759    ) -> str:
1760        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1761            table = expression.this.copy()
1762            table.set("alias", None)
1763            this = self.sql(table)
1764            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1765        else:
1766            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767            alias = ""
1768
1769        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1770        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1771        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1772        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1773        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1774        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1775        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1776        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1777        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1778
1779        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1780        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1781            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1782
1783        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1784        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1785            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1786
1787        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1788        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1789            expr = f"({expr})"
1790
1791        return (
1792            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1793        )
1794
1795    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1796        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1797
1798        if expression.this:
1799            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1800            if not expressions:
1801                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1802
1803            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1804            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1805            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1806            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1807            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1808
1809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1811        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1812        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1813        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1814        if include_nulls is not None:
1815            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1816        else:
1817            nulls = ""
1818        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1819
1820    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1821        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1822        kind = expression.text("kind")
1823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1824        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1825
1826    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1827        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1828
1829    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1832        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1835        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1836        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1837        if self.RETURNING_END:
1838            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1839        else:
1840            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1841        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1842        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1843
1844    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1845        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1846
1847        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1848        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1849            args = self.expressions(expression)
1850            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1852            values = (
1853                f"({values})"
1854                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1855                else values
1856            )
1857            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1858
1859        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1860        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1861        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1862
1863        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1864
1865        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1866            row = tup.expressions
1867
1868            if i == 0 and column_names:
1869                row = [
1870                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1871                ]
1872
1873            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1874
1875        if self.pretty:
1876            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1877            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1878            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1879            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1880            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1881
1882        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1883        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1884        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1885
1886    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1887        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1888
1889    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1890        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1891        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1892        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1893
1894    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1895        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1896
1897    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1898        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1899        if group_by_all is True:
1900            modifier = " ALL"
1901        elif group_by_all is False:
1902            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1903        else:
1904            modifier = ""
1905
1906        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1907
1908        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1909        grouping_sets = (
1910            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1911        )
1912
1913        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1914        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1915            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1916        else:
1917            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1918            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1919
1920        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1921        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1922            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1923        else:
1924            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1925            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1926
1927        groupings = csv(
1928            grouping_sets,
1929            cube_sql,
1930            rollup_sql,
1931            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1932            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1933        )
1934
1935        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1936            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1937
1938        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1939
1940    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1941        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1942        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1943
1944    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1945        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1946        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1947        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1948        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1949        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1950        return start + connect
1951
1952    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1953        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1954
1955    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1956        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1957            side = None
1958        else:
1959            side = expression.side
1960
1961        op_sql = " ".join(
1962            op
1963            for op in (
1964                expression.method,
1965                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1966                side,
1967                expression.kind,
1968                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1969            )
1970            if op
1971        )
1972        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1973        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1974        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1975        using = expression.args.get("using")
1976
1977        if not on_sql and using:
1978            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1979
1980        this = expression.this
1981        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1982
1983        if on_sql:
1984            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1985            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1986            if using:
1987                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1988            else:
1989                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1990        elif not op_sql:
1991            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1992                return f" {this_sql}"
1993
1994            return f", {this_sql}"
1995
1996        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1997            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1998
1999        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2000
2001    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2002        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2003        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2004        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2005
2006    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2007        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2008
2009        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2010        if cross_apply is True:
2011            op = "INNER JOIN "
2012        elif cross_apply is False:
2013            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2014        else:
2015            op = ""
2016
2017        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2018
2019    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021
2022        if expression.args.get("view"):
2023            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2024            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2025            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2026            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2027            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2028            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2029
2030        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2031        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2032        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2033
2034    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036
2037        args = [
2038            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2039            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2040            if e
2041        ]
2042
2043        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2044        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2047
2048        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2049
2050    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        value = expression.expression
2053        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2055        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2056        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2057
2058    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2059        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2060        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2063        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2064        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2065        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2066        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2067
2068    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2069        expressions = (
2070            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2071        )
2072        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2073        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2074
2075    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2076        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2077
2078    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2079        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2080            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2081            return ""
2082
2083        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2087
2088        if wait is not None:
2089            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2090                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2091            else:
2092                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2093
2094        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2095
2096    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2097        text = expression.this or ""
2098        if expression.is_string:
2099            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2100        return text
2101
2102    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2103        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2104            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2105            text = "".join(
2106                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2107            )
2108
2109        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2110            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2111        )
2112
2113    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2114        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2115        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2116        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2117        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2118        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2119        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2120        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2121        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2122        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2123        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2124        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2125
2126    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2127        return "NULL"
2128
2129    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2130        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2131
2132    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2135        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2136        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2137        interpolated_values = [
2138            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2139            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2140        ]
2141        interpolate = (
2142            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2143        )
2144        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2145
2146    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2147        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2148        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2149        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2150        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2151        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2152        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2153        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2154
2155    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2157
2158    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2159        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2160
2161    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2162        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2163
2164    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2165        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2166        asc = not desc
2167
2168        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2169        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2170        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2171        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2172        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2173
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175
2176        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2177        nulls_sort_change = ""
2178        if nulls_first and (
2179            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2180        ):
2181            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2182        elif (
2183            nulls_last
2184            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2185            and not nulls_are_last
2186        ):
2187            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2188
2189        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2190        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2191            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2192            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2193                self.unsupported(
2194                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2195                )
2196                nulls_sort_change = ""
2197            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2198                if expression.this.is_int:
2199                    self.unsupported(
2200                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2201                    )
2202                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2203                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2204                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2205                nulls_sort_change = ""
2206
2207        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2208        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2209
2210        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2211
2212    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2213        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2214        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2215
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217
2218        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2219
2220    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2221        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2222        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2223        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2224        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2226        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2227        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2228        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2229        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2230        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2231        definition_sqls = [
2232            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2233            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2234        ]
2235        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2236        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2237        body = "".join(
2238            (
2239                partition,
2240                order,
2241                measures,
2242                rows,
2243                after,
2244                pattern,
2245                define,
2246            )
2247        )
2248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2249        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2250        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2251
2252    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2253        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2254
2255        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2256            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2257        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2258            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2259
2260        return csv(
2261            *sqls,
2262            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2263            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2265            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2266            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2267            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2270            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2271            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2272            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2273            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2274            self.options_modifier(expression),
2275            sep="",
2276        )
2277
2278    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2279        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2280        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2281
2282    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2283        return ""
2284
2285    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2286        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2287    ) -> t.List[str]:
2288        return [
2289            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2290            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2291        ]
2292
2293    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2294        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2295        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2296        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2297
2298    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2299        into = expression.args.get("into")
2300        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2301            into.pop()
2302
2303        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2304        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2305        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2307
2308        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2309        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2310            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2311            limit.pop()
2312        else:
2313            top = ""
2314
2315        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2316
2317        if kind:
2318            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2319                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2320            else:
2321                if kind == "STRUCT":
2322                    expressions = self.expressions(
2323                        sqls=[
2324                            self.sql(
2325                                exp.Struct(
2326                                    expressions=[
2327                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2328                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2329                                        else e
2330                                        for e in expression.expressions
2331                                    ]
2332                                )
2333                            )
2334                        ]
2335                    )
2336                kind = ""
2337
2338        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2339        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2340        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2341        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2342        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2343            expression,
2344            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2345            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2346            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2347        )
2348
2349        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2350
2351        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2352            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2353                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2354            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2355                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2356            else:
2357                table_kind = ""
2358            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2359
2360        return sql
2361
2362    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2365        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2366
2367    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2368        if expression.expressions:
2369            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2370        return ""
2371
2372    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2373        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2374        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2375        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2376        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2377        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2378        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2379        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2380
2381    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2384
2385    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        kind = expression.text("kind")
2388        if kind:
2389            kind = f"{kind}."
2390        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2391
2392    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2393        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2394
2395    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2396        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2397        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2398
2399        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2400        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2401
2402        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2403        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2404
2405    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2406        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2407        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2408
2409    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2410        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2411            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2412            order = expression.args.get("order")
2413
2414            if limit or order:
2415                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2416
2417                if limit:
2418                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2419                if order:
2420                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2421                return self.sql(select)
2422
2423        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2424        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2425
2426        while stack:
2427            node = stack.pop()
2428
2429            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2430                stack.append(node.expression)
2431                stack.append(
2432                    self.maybe_comment(
2433                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2434                        comments=node.comments,
2435                        separated=True,
2436                    )
2437                )
2438                stack.append(node.this)
2439            else:
2440                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2441
2442        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2443        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2445
2446    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2447        return self.set_operations(expression)
2448
2449    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2450        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2451        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2452        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2453        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2454
2455    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2456        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457
2458        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2459        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2460
2461        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2462            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2463                alias.append("columns", offset)
2464
2465        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2466            columns = alias.columns
2467            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2468        else:
2469            alias = self.sql(alias)
2470
2471        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2472        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2473            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2474        else:
2475            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2476                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2477            elif offset:
2478                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2479            else:
2480                suffix = alias
2481
2482        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2483
2484    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2485        return ""
2486
2487    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2488        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2489        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2490
2491    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2494        order = expression.args.get("order")
2495        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2496        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2497        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2498        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2499
2500        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2501
2502        first = expression.args.get("first")
2503        if first is None:
2504            first = ""
2505        else:
2506            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2507
2508        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2509            return f"{this} {alias}"
2510
2511        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2512        return f"{this} ({args})"
2513
2514    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2515        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2516        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2517
2518    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2520        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2521        end = (
2522            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2523            or "CURRENT ROW"
2524        )
2525        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2526
2527    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2530        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2531
2532    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2535        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2536        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2537
2538    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2539        return apply_index_offset(
2540            expression.this,
2541            expression.expressions,
2542            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2543        )
2544
2545    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2546        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2547        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2549
2550    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2551        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2552
2553    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2556            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2557                this = self.wrap(this)
2558            return f"ANY{this}"
2559        return f"ANY {this}"
2560
2561    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2562        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2563
2564    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2566        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2567
2568        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2569            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2570            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2571
2572        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2573
2574        if default:
2575            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2576
2577        statements.append("END")
2578
2579        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2580            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2581
2582        return " ".join(statements)
2583
2584    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2587        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2588
2589    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2590        order = expression.args.get("order")
2591        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2592        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2593
2594    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2596        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2597        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2598
2599    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2600        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2601
2602        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2603            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2604        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2605            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2606        else:
2607            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2608
2609    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2610        args = expression.expressions
2611        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2612            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2613
2614        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2615            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2616
2617        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2618            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2619
2620        return args
2621
2622    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2623        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2624
2625        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2626        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2627            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2628
2629        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2630
2631    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2632        return self.func(
2633            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2634        )
2635
2636    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2638        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2639
2640    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2642        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2643        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2644        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2645        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2646        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2647        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2648        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2649
2650    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2652        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2653        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2654        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2655
2656    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2657        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2658
2659    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2660        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2661        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2662        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2663
2664    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2666
2667    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2668        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2669        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2670            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2671
2672        return path
2673
2674    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2675        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2676            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2677            if not callable(transform):
2678                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2679                return ""
2680
2681            return transform(self, expression)
2682
2683        if isinstance(expression, int):
2684            return str(expression)
2685
2686        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2687            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2688            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2689        else:
2690            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2691            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2692
2693        return escaped
2694
2695    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2697
2698    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2699        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2700        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2701
2702        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2703        if unique_keys is not None:
2704            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2705        else:
2706            unique_keys = ""
2707
2708        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2709        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2710        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2711        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2712
2713        return self.func(
2714            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2715            *expression.expressions,
2716            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2717        )
2718
2719    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2720        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2721
2722    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2723        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2724        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2725        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2726        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2727        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2728        return self.func(
2729            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2730        )
2731
2732    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2738        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2739        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2742            this,
2743            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2744        )
2745
2746    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2747        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2748        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2749        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2750
2751        if nested_schema:
2752            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2753
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2756        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2757        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2758
2759    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2760        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2761
2762    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2765        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2766        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2767        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2768        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2769        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2770        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2771        return self.func(
2772            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2773        )
2774
2775    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2777        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2778        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2779        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2780        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2781        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2782
2783    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2786        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2787        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2788        with_ = (
2789            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2790            if expressions
2791            else ""
2792        )
2793        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2794
2795    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2796        query = expression.args.get("query")
2797        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2798        field = expression.args.get("field")
2799        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2800
2801        if query:
2802            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2803        elif unnest:
2804            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2805        elif field:
2806            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2807        else:
2808            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2809
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2811
2812    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2813        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2814
2815    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2816        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2817        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2818            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2819        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2820
2821        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2822            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2823            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2824
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        if this:
2827            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2828            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2829
2830        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2831
2832    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2833        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2834
2835    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2838        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2841        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2842
2843    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2844        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2845
2846    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2847        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2848        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2849
2850    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2851        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2852        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2854        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2855
2856    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2857        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2858
2859    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2860        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2861        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2863
2864    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2865        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2866        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2867
2868        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2869            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2870        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2871            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2872
2873        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2874
2875    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2877
2878    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2881        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2882
2883    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2886        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2887
2888    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2891        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2892
2893    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2894        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2895
2896    def and_sql(
2897        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2898    ) -> str:
2899        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2900
2901    def or_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2905
2906    def xor_sql(
2907        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2908    ) -> str:
2909        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2910
2911    def connector_sql(
2912        self,
2913        expression: exp.Connector,
2914        op: str,
2915        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2916    ) -> str:
2917        if stack is not None:
2918            if expression.expressions:
2919                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2920            else:
2921                stack.append(expression.right)
2922                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2923                    for comment in expression.comments:
2924                        if comment:
2925                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2926                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2927            return op
2928
2929        stack = [expression]
2930        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2931        ops = set()
2932
2933        while stack:
2934            node = stack.pop()
2935            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2936                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2937            else:
2938                sql = self.sql(node)
2939                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2940                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2941                else:
2942                    sqls.append(sql)
2943
2944        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2945        return sep.join(sqls)
2946
2947    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2949
2950    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2951        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2952
2953    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2954        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2955
2956    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2958
2959    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2961
2962    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2963        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2964
2965    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2966        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2967        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2968        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2969        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2970        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2971        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2972        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2973
2974    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2975        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2977
2978    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2979        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2980
2981    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2982        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2983            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2984        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2985
2986    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2988
2989    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2992        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2993        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2994        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2995        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2996
2997    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2999        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3000        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3001        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3002        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3003        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3004        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3005        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3006        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3007
3008    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3009        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3010        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3011        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3012        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3013
3014        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3015            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3016
3017        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3018
3019    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3020        return "BEGIN"
3021
3022    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3023        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3024        if chain is not None:
3025            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3026
3027        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3028
3029    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3030        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3031        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3032        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3033
3034    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3036
3037        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3038        if dtype:
3039            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3040            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3041            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3042            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3043            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3044
3045        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3046        if default:
3047            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3048
3049        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3050        if comment:
3051            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3052
3053        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3054        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3055
3056        if not drop and not allow_null:
3057            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3058
3059        if allow_null is not None:
3060            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3061            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3062
3063        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3064
3065    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3068            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3069        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3070
3071    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3072        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3075        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3076        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3077
3078    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3079        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3080            # Remove db from tables
3081            expression = expression.transform(
3082                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3083            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3086
3087    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3088        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3089        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3091        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3092
3093    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3094        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3095        return f"SET {exprs}"
3096
3097    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3098        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3099
3100        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3101            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3102        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3106        else:
3107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3108
3109        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3110        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3111        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3112        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3113        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3114        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3115        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3116
3117    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3118        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3119            return self.expressions(
3120                expression,
3121                key="actions",
3122                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3123            )
3124        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3125
3126    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3127        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3128        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3129        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3130
3131    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3132        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3133
3134    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3135        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3136
3137        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3138            case = exp.case()
3139            for arg in expression.expressions:
3140                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3141            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3142
3143        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3144
3145        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3146        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3147        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3148
3149    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3150        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3151
3152    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3153        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3154
3155    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3156        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3158        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3159        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3160
3161    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3162        return self.sql(
3163            exp.Cast(
3164                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3165                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3166            )
3167        )
3168
3169    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3170        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3171            return self.func(
3172                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3173            )
3174        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3175
3176    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3177        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3178
3179        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3180            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3181
3182        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3183            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3184                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3185
3186        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3187            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3188                return self.sql(
3189                    exp.cast(
3190                        l / r,
3191                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3192                    )
3193                )
3194
3195        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3196
3197    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3199
3200    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3202
3203    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3205
3206    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3208
3209    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3211
3212    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3214
3215    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3217
3218    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3220
3221    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3223
3224    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3226
3227    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3229
3230    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3231        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3232            return self.sql(
3233                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3234            )
3235        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3236
3237    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3239
3240    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3242
3243    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3245
3246    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3248
3249    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3251
3252    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3254
3255    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3257
3258    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3260
3261    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3263
3264    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3266
3267    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3269
3270    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3272
3273    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3274        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3275
3276    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3277        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3278            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3279            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3280
3281        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3282
3283    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3284        this = expression.this
3285        expr = expression.expression
3286
3287        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3288            this, expr = expr, this
3289        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3290            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3291                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3292
3293            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3294
3295        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3296
3297    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3298        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3299        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3301        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3302        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3303
3304    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3305        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3306        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3307
3308    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3309        args = []
3310
3311        for key in expression.arg_types:
3312            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3313
3314            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3315                for value in arg_value:
3316                    args.append(value)
3317            elif arg_value is not None:
3318                args.append(arg_value)
3319
3320        if self.normalize_functions:
3321            name = expression.sql_name()
3322        else:
3323            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3324
3325        return self.func(name, *args)
3326
3327    def func(
3328        self,
3329        name: str,
3330        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3331        prefix: str = "(",
3332        suffix: str = ")",
3333    ) -> str:
3334        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3335
3336    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3337        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3338        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3339            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3340        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3341
3342    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3343        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3344
3345    def format_time(
3346        self,
3347        expression: exp.Expression,
3348        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3349        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3350    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3351        return format_time(
3352            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3353            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3354            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3355        )
3356
3357    def expressions(
3358        self,
3359        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3360        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3361        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3362        flat: bool = False,
3363        indent: bool = True,
3364        skip_first: bool = False,
3365        skip_last: bool = False,
3366        sep: str = ", ",
3367        prefix: str = "",
3368        dynamic: bool = False,
3369        new_line: bool = False,
3370    ) -> str:
3371        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3372
3373        if not expressions:
3374            return ""
3375
3376        if flat:
3377            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3378
3379        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3380
3381        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3382        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3383            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3384
3385        result_sqls = []
3386        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3387            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3388            if not sql:
3389                continue
3390
3391            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3392
3393            if self.pretty:
3394                if self.leading_comma:
3395                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3396                else:
3397                    result_sqls.append(
3398                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3399                    )
3400            else:
3401                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3402
3403        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3404            if new_line:
3405                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3406                result_sqls.append("")
3407            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3408        else:
3409            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3410        return (
3411            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3412            if indent
3413            else result_sql
3414        )
3415
3416    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3417        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3418        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3419        if flat:
3420            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3421        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3422
3423    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3424        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3425        if not property_name:
3426            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3427        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3428
3429    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3430        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3431
3432    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3433        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3434
3435    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3438        expressions = (
3439            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3440        )
3441        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3442
3443    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3445        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3446        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3447
3448    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3450
3451    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3452        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3453        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3454        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3455        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3456
3457        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3458        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3459            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3460            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3461            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3462            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3463        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3464            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3465                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3466            else:
3467                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3468        else:
3469            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3470        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3471
3472    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3473        table = expression.this
3474        table_alias = ""
3475
3476        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3477        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3478            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3479            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3480
3481        this = self.sql(table)
3482        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3483        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3484        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3485        sep = self.sep()
3486
3487        return self.prepend_ctes(
3488            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3489        )
3490
3491    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3492        if expression.args.get("format"):
3493            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3494
3495        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3496
3497    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3498        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3499            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3500            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3501
3502        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3503        if not fmt:
3504            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3505            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3506
3507        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3508
3509    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3512        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3513        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3514        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3515
3516    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3518        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3519        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3520        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3521
3522    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3523        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3524
3525    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3526        return ""
3527
3528    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3530        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3531        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3532        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3533        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3534
3535    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3538
3539        if having:
3540            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3541
3542        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3543
3544    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3545        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3546        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3547        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3548        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3549        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3550        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3551        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3552        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3553        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3554        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3555        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3556        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3557        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3558
3559    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3560        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3561        if key_block_size:
3562            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3563
3564        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3565        if using:
3566            return f"USING {using}"
3567
3568        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3569        if parser:
3570            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3571
3572        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3573        if comment:
3574            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3575
3576        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3577        if visible is not None:
3578            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3579
3580        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3581        if engine_attr:
3582            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3583
3584        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3585        if secondary_engine_attr:
3586            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3587
3588        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3589        return ""
3590
3591    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3593        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3594
3595    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3596        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3597        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3599        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3600        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3601        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3603        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3606        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3607
3608    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3609        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3610            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3611
3612        case = exp.Case().when(
3613            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3614            expression.args["true"],
3615            copy=False,
3616        )
3617        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3618        if else_cond:
3619            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3620
3621        return self.sql(case)
3622
3623    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3626        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3627        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3628        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3629        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3630
3631    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3633
3634    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3636
3637    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3638        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3640        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3641        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3642        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3643        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3644
3645    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3648        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3649
3650    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3652        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3653        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3654
3655    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3656        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3657
3658    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3659        arg = expression.this
3660        if not arg.type:
3661            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3662
3663            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3664
3665        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3666            return self.sql(arg)
3667
3668        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3669        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3670
3671    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3672        this = expression.this
3673        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3674            return self.sql(this)
3675
3676        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3677
3678    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3679        this = expression.this
3680        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3681            return self.sql(this)
3682
3683        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3684
3685    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3686        this = expression.this
3687        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3688
3689        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3690            return self.sql(
3691                exp.cast(
3692                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3693                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3694                )
3695            )
3696
3697        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3698            return self.sql(this)
3699
3700        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3701
3702    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3703        return self.sql(
3704            exp.func(
3705                "DATEDIFF",
3706                expression.this,
3707                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3708                "day",
3709            )
3710        )
3711
3712    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3713        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3714            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3715
3716        unit = expression.text("unit")
3717        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3718            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3719
3720        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3721
3722    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3723        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3724
3725        return self.func(
3726            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3727        )
3728
3729    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3730        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3731            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3732            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3733            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3734            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3735
3736        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3737
3738        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3739        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3740            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3741
3742        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3743
3744    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3745        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3746        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3747
3748    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3749        expression.set(
3750            "expressions",
3751            [
3752                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3753                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3754                else e
3755                for e in expression.expressions
3756            ],
3757        )
3758
3759        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3760
3761    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3762        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3763        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3764
3765        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3766
3767    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3768        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3769        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3770
3771        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3772
3773        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3774        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3775
3776        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3777        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3778
3779        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3780        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3781
3782        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3783        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3784
3785        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3786
3787    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3788    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3789    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3790        to = expression.this
3791        value = expression.expression
3792        style = expression.args.get("style")
3793        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3794        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3795
3796        if not to or not value:
3797            return ""
3798
3799        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3800        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3801            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3802
3803        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3804        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3805
3806        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3807        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3808            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3809
3810            style_value = style.name
3811            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3812            if not converted_style:
3813                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3814
3815            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3816
3817            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3818                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3819            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3820                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3821            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3822                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3823            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3824                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3825
3826        if not transformed:
3827            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3828
3829        return self.sql(transformed)
3830
3831    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3832        this = expression.this
3833        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3834            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3835            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3836
3837        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3838            return f".{this}"
3839
3840        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3841        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3842
3843    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3844        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3845        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3846
3847    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3848        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3849            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3850
3851            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3852
3853        return expression
3854
3855    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3856        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3857            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3858            mods = sorted(
3859                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3860                key=lambda x: 0
3861                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3862                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3863            )
3864
3865            if mods:
3866                mod = mods[0]
3867                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3868                this.meta["inline"] = True
3869                mod.this.replace(this)
3870                return self.sql(expression.this)
3871
3872            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3873
3874            if agg_func:
3875                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3876
3877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3878
3879    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3880        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3881        if self.pretty:
3882            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3883        return string
3884
3885    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3886        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3887
3888        if expression.expressions:
3889            upper = option.upper()
3890
3891            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3892            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3893
3894            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3895            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3896            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3897            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3898
3899        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3900
3901        if not value:
3902            return option
3903
3904        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3905
3906        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3907
3908    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3909        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3910        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3911            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3912            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3913            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3914        else:
3915            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3916            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3917            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3918
3919        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3920        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3921
3922        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3923        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3924
3925        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3926        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3927
3928        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3929        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3930
3931        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3932
3933    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3935        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3936
3937        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3938        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3939        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3940        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3941
3942        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3943        params = self.expressions(
3944            expression,
3945            key="params",
3946            sep=sep,
3947            new_line=True,
3948            skip_last=True,
3949            skip_first=True,
3950            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3951        )
3952
3953        if params:
3954            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3955                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3956            elif not self.pretty:
3957                params = f" {params}"
3958
3959        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3960
3961    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3962        return ""
3963
3964    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3965        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3966        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3967        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3968        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3969        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3970
3971        if filter_col or retention_period:
3972            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3973
3974        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3975
3976    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3977        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3978    ) -> str:
3979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3981        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3982        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3983
3984    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3986        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3987        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3988
3989    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3990        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3991
3992    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        expr = expression.expression
3995
3996        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3997            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3998            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3999        else:
4000            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4001
4002        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4003
4004    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4005        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4006            return self.sql(expression.this)
4007
4008        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4009
4010    def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
4011        return self.func("LENGTH", expression.this)
4012
4013    def strtodate_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToDate) -> str:
4014        return self.func("STR_TO_DATE", expression.this, expression.args.get("format"))
4015
4016    def strtotime_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToTime) -> str:
4017        return self.func(
4018            "STR_TO_TIME",
4019            expression.this,
4020            expression.args.get("format"),
4021            expression.args.get("zone"),
4022        )
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 113            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 114        ),
 115        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 117        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 118        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 119        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 120        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 121        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 122        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 123        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 124        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 125        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 132        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 134            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 135        ),
 136        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 138        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 139        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 140        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 141        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 144        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 145        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 146        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 147        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 148        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 149        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 151        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 153        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 154        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 155        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 156        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 157        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 158        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 160        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 162    }
 163
 164    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 165    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 166    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 167
 168    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 169    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 170    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 171
 172    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 173    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 174
 175    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 176    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 177
 178    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 179    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 180
 181    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 182    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 183
 184    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 185    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 186
 187    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 188    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 189
 190    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 191    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 194    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 195
 196    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 197    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 198
 199    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 200    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 201
 202    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 203    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 204
 205    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 206    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 207
 208    # Whether join hints should be generated
 209    JOIN_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether table hints should be generated
 212    TABLE_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # Whether query hints should be generated
 215    QUERY_HINTS = True
 216
 217    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 218    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 219
 220    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 221    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 222
 223    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 224    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 225
 226    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 227    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 228
 229    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 230    RETURNING_END = True
 231
 232    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 233    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 234
 235    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 236    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 237
 238    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 239    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 240
 241    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 242    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 243
 244    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 245    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 246    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 247    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 248
 249    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 250    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 251
 252    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 253    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 254
 255    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 256    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 257
 258    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 259    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 260
 261    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 262    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 263
 264    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 265    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 266
 267    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 268    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 269
 270    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 272
 273    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 274    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 275
 276    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 277    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 278
 279    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 280    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 281
 282    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 283    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 284
 285    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 286    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 287
 288    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 289    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 290
 291    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 292    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 293
 294    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 295    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 296
 297    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 298    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 299
 300    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 301    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 302
 303    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 304    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 305
 306    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 307    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 308
 309    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 310    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 311
 312    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 313    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 314
 315    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 316    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 317
 318    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 319    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 320
 321    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 322    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 323
 324    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 325    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 326    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 327
 328    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 329    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 330
 331    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 333
 334    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 335    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 336
 337    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 338    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 339
 340    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 341    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 342
 343    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 344    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 345
 346    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 347    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 348    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 349    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 352    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 353
 354    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 355    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 356
 357    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 358    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 359
 360    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 361    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 362
 363    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 365
 366    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 367    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 368
 369    # The HEX function name
 370    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 371
 372    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 373    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 374
 375    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 376    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 377
 378    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 379    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 380
 381    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 382        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 392    }
 393
 394    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 395        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 396        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 397        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 398        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 399        "DAYS": "DAY",
 400        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 401        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 402        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 403        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 404    }
 405
 406    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 407        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 408        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 409        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 410        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 411        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 412            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 413            if e.args.get("windows")
 414            else ""
 415        ),
 416    }
 417
 418    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 419
 420    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 421
 422    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 423    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 424
 425    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 426        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 432        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 450        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 451        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 454        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 459        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 464        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 468        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 470        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 473        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 476        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 491        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 494        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 506        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507    }
 508
 509    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 510    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 511
 512    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 513    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 514        exp.Create,
 515        exp.Delete,
 516        exp.Drop,
 517        exp.From,
 518        exp.Insert,
 519        exp.Join,
 520        exp.Select,
 521        exp.SetOperation,
 522        exp.Update,
 523        exp.Where,
 524        exp.With,
 525    )
 526
 527    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 528    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 529        exp.Binary,
 530        exp.SetOperation,
 531    )
 532
 533    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 534    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 535        exp.Column,
 536        exp.Literal,
 537        exp.Neg,
 538        exp.Paren,
 539    )
 540
 541    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 542        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 543        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 544        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 545        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 546    }
 547
 548    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 549    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 550
 551    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 552
 553    __slots__ = (
 554        "pretty",
 555        "identify",
 556        "normalize",
 557        "pad",
 558        "_indent",
 559        "normalize_functions",
 560        "unsupported_level",
 561        "max_unsupported",
 562        "leading_comma",
 563        "max_text_width",
 564        "comments",
 565        "dialect",
 566        "unsupported_messages",
 567        "_escaped_quote_end",
 568        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 569        "_next_name",
 570    )
 571
 572    def __init__(
 573        self,
 574        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 575        identify: str | bool = False,
 576        normalize: bool = False,
 577        pad: int = 2,
 578        indent: int = 2,
 579        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 580        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 581        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 582        leading_comma: bool = False,
 583        max_text_width: int = 80,
 584        comments: bool = True,
 585        dialect: DialectType = None,
 586    ):
 587        import sqlglot
 588        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 589
 590        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 591        self.identify = identify
 592        self.normalize = normalize
 593        self.pad = pad
 594        self._indent = indent
 595        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 596        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 597        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 598        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 599        self.comments = comments
 600        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 601
 602        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 603        self.normalize_functions = (
 604            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 605        )
 606
 607        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 608        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 609            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 610        )
 611        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 612            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 613        )
 614
 615        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 616
 617    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 618        """
 619        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 620
 621        Args:
 622            expression: The syntax tree.
 623            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 624                it is safer to copy.
 625
 626        Returns:
 627            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 628        """
 629        if copy:
 630            expression = expression.copy()
 631
 632        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 633
 634        self.unsupported_messages = []
 635        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 636
 637        if self.pretty:
 638            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 639
 640        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 641            return sql
 642
 643        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 644            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 645                logger.warning(msg)
 646        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 647            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 648
 649        return sql
 650
 651    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 652        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 653        if (
 654            not expression.parent
 655            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 656            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 657        ):
 658            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 659
 660            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 661
 662        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 663            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 664
 665            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 666
 667        return expression
 668
 669    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 670        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 671            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 672        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 673
 674    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 675        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 676
 677    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 678        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 679
 680    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 681        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 682        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 683        return comment
 684
 685    def maybe_comment(
 686        self,
 687        sql: str,
 688        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 689        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 690        separated: bool = False,
 691    ) -> str:
 692        comments = (
 693            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 694            if self.comments
 695            else None
 696        )
 697
 698        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 699            return sql
 700
 701        comments_sql = " ".join(
 702            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 703        )
 704
 705        if not comments_sql:
 706            return sql
 707
 708        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 709
 710        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 711            return (
 712                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 713                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 714                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 715            )
 716
 717        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 718
 719    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 720        this_sql = (
 721            self.sql(expression)
 722            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 723            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 724        )
 725        if not this_sql:
 726            return "()"
 727
 728        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 729        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 730
 731    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 732        original = self.identify
 733        self.identify = False
 734        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 735        self.identify = original
 736        return result
 737
 738    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 739        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 740            return name.upper()
 741        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 742            return name.lower()
 743        return name
 744
 745    def indent(
 746        self,
 747        sql: str,
 748        level: int = 0,
 749        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 750        skip_first: bool = False,
 751        skip_last: bool = False,
 752    ) -> str:
 753        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 754            return sql
 755
 756        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 757        lines = sql.split("\n")
 758
 759        return "\n".join(
 760            (
 761                line
 762                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 763                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 764            )
 765            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 766        )
 767
 768    def sql(
 769        self,
 770        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 771        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 772        comment: bool = True,
 773    ) -> str:
 774        if not expression:
 775            return ""
 776
 777        if isinstance(expression, str):
 778            return expression
 779
 780        if key:
 781            value = expression.args.get(key)
 782            if value:
 783                return self.sql(value)
 784            return ""
 785
 786        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 787
 788        if callable(transform):
 789            sql = transform(self, expression)
 790        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 791            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 792
 793            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 794                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 795            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 796                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 797            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 798                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 799            else:
 800                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 801        else:
 802            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 803
 804        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 805
 806    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 807        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 809        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 810
 811    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 812        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 813        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        options = expression.args.get("options")
 815        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 816        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 817        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 818        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 819        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 820
 821    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 822        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 823            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 824        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 825        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 826
 827    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 828        return ".".join(
 829            self.sql(part)
 830            for part in (
 831                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 832                expression.args.get("db"),
 833                expression.args.get("table"),
 834                expression.args.get("this"),
 835            )
 836            if part
 837        )
 838
 839    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 840        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 841
 842        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 843            join_mark = ""
 844            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 845
 846        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 847
 848    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 851        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 852        return f"{position}{this}"
 853
 854    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 855        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 857        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 858        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 859        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 860        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 861        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 862        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 863
 864        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 865            kind = ""
 866
 867        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 868
 869    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 872        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 873
 874    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 877            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 878        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 879            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 880        else:
 881            persisted = ""
 882        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 883
 884    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 885        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 886
 887    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 889            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 890        else:
 891            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 892
 893        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 894
 895    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 896        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 897    ) -> str:
 898        this = ""
 899        if expression.this is not None:
 900            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 901            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 902
 903        start = expression.args.get("start")
 904        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 905        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 906        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 907        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 908        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 909        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 910        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 911        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 912        cycle_sql = ""
 913
 914        if cycle is not None:
 915            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 916            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 917
 918        sequence_opts = ""
 919        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 920            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 921            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 922
 923        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 924        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 925
 926        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 927
 928    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 929        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 930    ) -> str:
 931        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 932        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 933        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 934
 935    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 936        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 937    ) -> str:
 938        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 939
 940    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 942
 943    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 944        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 945
 946    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 948        if desc is not None:
 949            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 950        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 951
 952    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 955        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 956        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 957        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 958        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 959        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 960
 961    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 962        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 963
 964    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 966        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 967        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 968
 969        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 970
 971        properties_sql = ""
 972        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 973            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 974        ):
 975            properties_sql = self.sql(
 976                exp.Properties(
 977                    expressions=[
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 979                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 980                    ]
 981                )
 982            )
 983
 984            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 985                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 986            elif not self.pretty:
 987                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 988                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 989
 990        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 991        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 992
 993        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 994        if expression_sql:
 995            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 996
 997            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 998                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 999                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                        exp.Properties(
1001                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1002                        ),
1003                        wrapped=False,
1004                    )
1005                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1006                else:
1007                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1008
1009        postindex_props_sql = ""
1010        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1011            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1012                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1013                wrapped=False,
1014                prefix=" ",
1015            )
1016
1017        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1018        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1019        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1020
1021        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1022        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1023
1024        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1026            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1028                sep=" ",
1029                prefix=" ",
1030                wrapped=False,
1031            )
1032
1033        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1034
1035        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1036        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1037            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1038                exp.Properties(
1039                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1040                ),
1041                sep=" ",
1042                prefix=" ",
1043                wrapped=False,
1044            )
1045
1046        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1047        no_schema_binding = (
1048            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1049        )
1050
1051        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1052        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1053
1054        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1055        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1056
1057    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1058        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1059        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1060        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1061        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1062        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1063        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1064        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1065        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1066        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1067        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1068
1069        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1070        if cache is None:
1071            cache_str = ""
1072        elif cache is True:
1073            cache_str = " CACHE"
1074        else:
1075            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1076
1077        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1078        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1079
1080        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1081
1082    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1085        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1086        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1087
1088    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1089        style = expression.args.get("style")
1090        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1091        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1092
1093    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1094        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1095        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1096
1097    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1098        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1099        if with_:
1100            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1101        return sql
1102
1103    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1104        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1105        recursive = (
1106            "RECURSIVE "
1107            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1108            else ""
1109        )
1110
1111        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1112
1113    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1115
1116        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1117        if materialized is False:
1118            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1119        elif materialized:
1120            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1121
1122        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1123
1124    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1125        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1127        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1128
1129        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1130            columns = ""
1131            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1132
1133        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1134            alias = self._next_name()
1135
1136        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1137
1138    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1142        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1143
1144    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1147            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1148        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1149
1150    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1152        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1153            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1154        return this
1155
1156    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1159
1160        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1161            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1162            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1163        else:
1164            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1165            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1166
1167        if escape:
1168            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1169            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1170        else:
1171            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1172            escape_sql = ""
1173
1174        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1175            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1176
1177        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1178
1179    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1180        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1181        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1182
1183    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1186        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1187        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1188
1189    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1190        type_value = expression.this
1191
1192        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1193            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1194        else:
1195            type_sql = (
1196                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1197                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1198                else type_value
1199            )
1200
1201        nested = ""
1202        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1203        values = ""
1204
1205        if interior:
1206            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1207                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1208                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1209                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1210                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1211                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1212            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1213                nested = f" {interior}"
1214            else:
1215                nested = f"({interior})"
1216
1217        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1218        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1219            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1220            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1221        ):
1222            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1223
1224        return type_sql
1225
1226    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1227        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1228        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1229        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1230        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1231
1232    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1235        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1236        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1237        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1239        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1240        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1241        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1242        if self.RETURNING_END:
1243            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1244        else:
1245            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1246        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1247
1248    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1251        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1252        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1253        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1256        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1257        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1258        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1259        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1260        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1261        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1262
1263    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1264        return self.set_operations(expression)
1265
1266    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1267        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1268
1269    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1270        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1271        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1272        count = expression.args.get("count")
1273        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1274        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1275            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1276        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1277        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1278
1279    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1280        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1281            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1283            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1284
1285        agg = expression.this
1286        agg_arg = agg.this
1287        cond = expression.expression.this
1288        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1289        return self.sql(agg)
1290
1291    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1292        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1293            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1294            return ""
1295
1296        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1297
1298    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1299        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1300        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1301        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1302        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1303        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1304        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1305        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1306        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1307        if include:
1308            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1309        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1310        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1311        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1312        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1313        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1314        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1315
1316        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1317
1318    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1319        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1320        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1321        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1322        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1324        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1325        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1326
1327        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1328
1329        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1330        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1331
1332    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1333        text = expression.name
1334        lower = text.lower()
1335        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1336        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1337        if (
1338            expression.quoted
1339            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1340            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1341            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1342        ):
1343            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1344        return text
1345
1346    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1347        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1348        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1349            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1350
1351        return text
1352
1353    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1354        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1355        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1356            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1357        return text
1358
1359    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1360        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1361        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1362        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1363        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1364        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1365
1366    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1367        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1368        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1369
1370    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1371        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1372
1373    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1374        root_properties = []
1375        with_properties = []
1376
1377        for p in expression.expressions:
1378            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1379            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1380                with_properties.append(p)
1381            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1382                root_properties.append(p)
1383
1384        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1385        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1386
1387        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1388            with_props = " " + with_props
1389
1390        return root_props + with_props
1391
1392    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1393        if properties.expressions:
1394            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1395        return ""
1396
1397    def properties(
1398        self,
1399        properties: exp.Properties,
1400        prefix: str = "",
1401        sep: str = ", ",
1402        suffix: str = "",
1403        wrapped: bool = True,
1404    ) -> str:
1405        if properties.expressions:
1406            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1407            if expressions:
1408                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1409                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1410        return ""
1411
1412    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1413        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1414
1415    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1416        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1417        for p in properties.expressions:
1418            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1419            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1420                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1421            else:
1422                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1423
1424        return properties_locs
1425
1426    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1427        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1428            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1429        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1430
1431    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1432        property_cls = expression.__class__
1433        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1434            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1435
1436        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1437        if not property_name:
1438            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1439
1440        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1441
1442    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1443        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1444            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1445            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1446
1447            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1448            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1449                like = f"({like})"
1450
1451            return like
1452
1453        if expression.expressions:
1454            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1455
1456        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1457        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1458
1459    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1460        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1461        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1462        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1463
1464    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1465        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1466        local = expression.args.get("local")
1467        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1468        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1469        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1470        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1471        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1472
1473    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1474        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1475        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1476        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1477
1478    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1479        if expression.args.get("default"):
1480            property = "DEFAULT"
1481        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1482            property = "ON"
1483        else:
1484            property = "OFF"
1485        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1486
1487    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1488        if expression.args.get("no"):
1489            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1490        if expression.args.get("default"):
1491            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1492
1493        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1494        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1495
1496    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1497        default = expression.args.get("default")
1498        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1499        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1500        if default or minimum or maximum:
1501            if default:
1502                prop = "DEFAULT"
1503            elif minimum:
1504                prop = "MINIMUM"
1505            else:
1506                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1507            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1508        units = expression.args.get("units")
1509        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1510        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1511
1512    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1513        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1514        always = expression.args.get("always")
1515        default = expression.args.get("default")
1516        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1517        never = expression.args.get("never")
1518
1519        if autotemp is not None:
1520            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1521        elif always:
1522            prop = "ALWAYS"
1523        elif default:
1524            prop = "DEFAULT"
1525        elif manual:
1526            prop = "MANUAL"
1527        elif never:
1528            prop = "NEVER"
1529        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1530
1531    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1532        no = expression.args.get("no")
1533        no = " NO" if no else ""
1534        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1535        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1536        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1537        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1538        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1539
1540    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1541        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1542            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1543        if expression.this:
1544            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1545            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1546            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1547
1548        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1549        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1550        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1551
1552    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1554
1555        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1556        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1557            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1558        else:
1559            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1560
1561        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1562
1563    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1564        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1565        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1566        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1567        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1568        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1569        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1570        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1571
1572    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1573        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1574        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1575        statistics_sql = ""
1576        if statistics is not None:
1577            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1578        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1579
1580    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1583        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1584        data_consistency = (
1585            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1586        )
1587        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1588        retention_period = (
1589            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1590        )
1591
1592        if this:
1593            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1594        else:
1595            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1596
1597        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1598
1599        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1600
1601    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1602        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1603        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1604
1605        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1606            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1607        else:
1608            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1609
1610        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1611        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1612        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1613        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1614        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1615        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1616        if is_function:
1617            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1618        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1619
1620        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1621        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1622        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1623        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1624        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1625        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1626        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1627        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1628
1629        if self.RETURNING_END:
1630            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1631        else:
1632            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1633
1634        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1635        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1636
1637    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1638        return self.set_operations(expression)
1639
1640    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1641        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1642
1643    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1644        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1645
1646    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1647        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1648        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1650        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1651        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1652
1653    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1654        return expression.name
1655
1656    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1657        return expression.name
1658
1659    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1660        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1661
1662        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1663        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1664
1665        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1666        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1667        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1668
1669        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1670        if expressions:
1671            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1672            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1673
1674        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1675
1676    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1677        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1678
1679    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1680        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1681        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1682        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1683        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1684        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1685        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1686        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1687        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1688        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1689        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1690        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1691        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1692        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1693
1694    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1695        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1696
1697    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1698        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1699        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1700        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1701        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1702
1703    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1706        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1707        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1708
1709    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1710        return ".".join(
1711            self.sql(part)
1712            for part in (
1713                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1714                expression.args.get("db"),
1715                expression.args.get("this"),
1716            )
1717            if part is not None
1718        )
1719
1720    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1721        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1722        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1723        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1724        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1725        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1726        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1728        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1729        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1730        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1731        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1732        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1733        joins = self.indent(
1734            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1735        )
1736        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1737
1738        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1739        if file_format:
1740            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1741            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1742            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1743
1744        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1745        if ordinality:
1746            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1747            alias = ""
1748
1749        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1750        if when:
1751            table = f"{table} {when}"
1752
1753        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1754
1755    def tablesample_sql(
1756        self,
1757        expression: exp.TableSample,
1758        sep: str = " AS ",
1759        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1760    ) -> str:
1761        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1762            table = expression.this.copy()
1763            table.set("alias", None)
1764            this = self.sql(table)
1765            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1766        else:
1767            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768            alias = ""
1769
1770        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1771        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1772        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1773        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1774        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1775        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1776        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1777        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1778        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1779
1780        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1781        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1782            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1783
1784        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1785        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1786            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1787
1788        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1789        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1790            expr = f"({expr})"
1791
1792        return (
1793            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1794        )
1795
1796    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1797        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1798
1799        if expression.this:
1800            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801            if not expressions:
1802                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1803
1804            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1805            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1806            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1807            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1808            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1809
1810        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1811        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1812        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1813        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1814        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1815        if include_nulls is not None:
1816            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1817        else:
1818            nulls = ""
1819        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1820
1821    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1822        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1823        kind = expression.text("kind")
1824        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1825        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1826
1827    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1828        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1829
1830    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1834        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1836        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1837        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1838        if self.RETURNING_END:
1839            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1840        else:
1841            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1842        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1843        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1844
1845    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1846        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1847
1848        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1849        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1850            args = self.expressions(expression)
1851            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1853            values = (
1854                f"({values})"
1855                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1856                else values
1857            )
1858            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1859
1860        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1861        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1862        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1863
1864        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1865
1866        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1867            row = tup.expressions
1868
1869            if i == 0 and column_names:
1870                row = [
1871                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1872                ]
1873
1874            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1875
1876        if self.pretty:
1877            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1878            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1879            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1880            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1881            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1882
1883        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1884        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1885        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1886
1887    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1888        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1889
1890    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1891        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1892        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1893        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1894
1895    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1896        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1897
1898    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1899        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1900        if group_by_all is True:
1901            modifier = " ALL"
1902        elif group_by_all is False:
1903            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1904        else:
1905            modifier = ""
1906
1907        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1908
1909        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1910        grouping_sets = (
1911            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1912        )
1913
1914        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1915        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1916            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1917        else:
1918            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1919            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1920
1921        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1922        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1923            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1924        else:
1925            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1926            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1927
1928        groupings = csv(
1929            grouping_sets,
1930            cube_sql,
1931            rollup_sql,
1932            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1933            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1934        )
1935
1936        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1937            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1938
1939        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1940
1941    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1942        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1943        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1944
1945    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1946        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1947        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1948        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1949        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1950        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1951        return start + connect
1952
1953    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1954        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1955
1956    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1957        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1958            side = None
1959        else:
1960            side = expression.side
1961
1962        op_sql = " ".join(
1963            op
1964            for op in (
1965                expression.method,
1966                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1967                side,
1968                expression.kind,
1969                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1970            )
1971            if op
1972        )
1973        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1974        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1975        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1976        using = expression.args.get("using")
1977
1978        if not on_sql and using:
1979            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1980
1981        this = expression.this
1982        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1983
1984        if on_sql:
1985            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1986            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1987            if using:
1988                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1989            else:
1990                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1991        elif not op_sql:
1992            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1993                return f" {this_sql}"
1994
1995            return f", {this_sql}"
1996
1997        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1998            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1999
2000        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2001
2002    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2003        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2004        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2005        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2006
2007    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2008        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2009
2010        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2011        if cross_apply is True:
2012            op = "INNER JOIN "
2013        elif cross_apply is False:
2014            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2015        else:
2016            op = ""
2017
2018        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2019
2020    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022
2023        if expression.args.get("view"):
2024            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2025            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2026            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2027            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2028            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2029            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2030
2031        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2032        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2033        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2034
2035    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037
2038        args = [
2039            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2040            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2041            if e
2042        ]
2043
2044        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2045        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2046        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2047        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2048
2049        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2050
2051    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2053        value = expression.expression
2054        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2056        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2057        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2058
2059    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2060        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2061        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2064        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2065        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2066        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2067        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2068
2069    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2070        expressions = (
2071            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2072        )
2073        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2074        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2075
2076    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2077        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2078
2079    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2080        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2081            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2082            return ""
2083
2084        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2085        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2086        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2087        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2088
2089        if wait is not None:
2090            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2091                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2092            else:
2093                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2094
2095        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2096
2097    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2098        text = expression.this or ""
2099        if expression.is_string:
2100            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2101        return text
2102
2103    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2104        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2105            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2106            text = "".join(
2107                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2108            )
2109
2110        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2111            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2112        )
2113
2114    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2115        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2116        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2117        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2118        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2119        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2120        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2121        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2122        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2123        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2124        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2125        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2126
2127    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2128        return "NULL"
2129
2130    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2131        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2132
2133    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2136        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2137        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2138        interpolated_values = [
2139            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2140            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2141        ]
2142        interpolate = (
2143            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2144        )
2145        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2146
2147    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2148        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2149        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2150        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2151        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2152        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2153        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2154        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2155
2156    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2157        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2158
2159    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2160        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2161
2162    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2163        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2164
2165    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2166        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2167        asc = not desc
2168
2169        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2170        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2171        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2172        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2173        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2174
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176
2177        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2178        nulls_sort_change = ""
2179        if nulls_first and (
2180            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2181        ):
2182            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2183        elif (
2184            nulls_last
2185            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2186            and not nulls_are_last
2187        ):
2188            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2189
2190        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2191        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2192            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2193            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2194                self.unsupported(
2195                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2196                )
2197                nulls_sort_change = ""
2198            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2199                if expression.this.is_int:
2200                    self.unsupported(
2201                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2202                    )
2203                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2204                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2205                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2206                nulls_sort_change = ""
2207
2208        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2209        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2210
2211        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2212
2213    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2214        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2215        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2216
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218
2219        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2220
2221    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2222        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2223        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2224        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2225        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2226        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2227        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2228        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2229        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2230        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2231        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2232        definition_sqls = [
2233            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2234            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2235        ]
2236        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2237        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2238        body = "".join(
2239            (
2240                partition,
2241                order,
2242                measures,
2243                rows,
2244                after,
2245                pattern,
2246                define,
2247            )
2248        )
2249        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2250        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2251        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2252
2253    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2254        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2255
2256        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2257            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2258        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2259            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2260
2261        return csv(
2262            *sqls,
2263            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2264            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2265            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2266            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2267            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2270            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2271            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2272            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2273            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2274            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2275            self.options_modifier(expression),
2276            sep="",
2277        )
2278
2279    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2280        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2281        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2282
2283    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2284        return ""
2285
2286    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2287        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2288    ) -> t.List[str]:
2289        return [
2290            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2291            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2292        ]
2293
2294    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2295        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2296        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2297        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2298
2299    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2300        into = expression.args.get("into")
2301        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2302            into.pop()
2303
2304        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2305        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2306        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2307        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2308
2309        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2310        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2311            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2312            limit.pop()
2313        else:
2314            top = ""
2315
2316        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2317
2318        if kind:
2319            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2320                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2321            else:
2322                if kind == "STRUCT":
2323                    expressions = self.expressions(
2324                        sqls=[
2325                            self.sql(
2326                                exp.Struct(
2327                                    expressions=[
2328                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2329                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2330                                        else e
2331                                        for e in expression.expressions
2332                                    ]
2333                                )
2334                            )
2335                        ]
2336                    )
2337                kind = ""
2338
2339        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2340        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2341        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2342        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2343        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2344            expression,
2345            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2346            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2347            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2348        )
2349
2350        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2351
2352        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2353            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2354                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2355            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2356                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2357            else:
2358                table_kind = ""
2359            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2360
2361        return sql
2362
2363    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2366        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2367
2368    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2369        if expression.expressions:
2370            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2371        return ""
2372
2373    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2374        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2375        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2376        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2377        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2378        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2379        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2380        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2381
2382    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2385
2386    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        kind = expression.text("kind")
2389        if kind:
2390            kind = f"{kind}."
2391        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2392
2393    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2394        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2395
2396    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2397        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2398        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2399
2400        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2401        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2402
2403        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2404        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2405
2406    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2407        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2408        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2409
2410    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2411        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2412            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2413            order = expression.args.get("order")
2414
2415            if limit or order:
2416                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2417
2418                if limit:
2419                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2420                if order:
2421                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2422                return self.sql(select)
2423
2424        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2425        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2426
2427        while stack:
2428            node = stack.pop()
2429
2430            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2431                stack.append(node.expression)
2432                stack.append(
2433                    self.maybe_comment(
2434                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2435                        comments=node.comments,
2436                        separated=True,
2437                    )
2438                )
2439                stack.append(node.this)
2440            else:
2441                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2442
2443        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2444        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2445        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2446
2447    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2448        return self.set_operations(expression)
2449
2450    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2451        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2452        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2453        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2454        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2455
2456    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2457        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458
2459        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2460        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2461
2462        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2463            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2464                alias.append("columns", offset)
2465
2466        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2467            columns = alias.columns
2468            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2469        else:
2470            alias = self.sql(alias)
2471
2472        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2473        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2474            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2475        else:
2476            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2477                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2478            elif offset:
2479                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2480            else:
2481                suffix = alias
2482
2483        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2484
2485    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2486        return ""
2487
2488    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2489        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2490        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2491
2492    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2495        order = expression.args.get("order")
2496        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2497        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2498        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2499        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2500
2501        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2502
2503        first = expression.args.get("first")
2504        if first is None:
2505            first = ""
2506        else:
2507            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2508
2509        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2510            return f"{this} {alias}"
2511
2512        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2513        return f"{this} ({args})"
2514
2515    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2516        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2517        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2518
2519    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2520        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2521        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2522        end = (
2523            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2524            or "CURRENT ROW"
2525        )
2526        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2527
2528    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2531        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2532
2533    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2536        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2537        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2538
2539    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2540        return apply_index_offset(
2541            expression.this,
2542            expression.expressions,
2543            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2544        )
2545
2546    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2547        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2548        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2549        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2550
2551    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2552        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2553
2554    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2557            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2558                this = self.wrap(this)
2559            return f"ANY{this}"
2560        return f"ANY {this}"
2561
2562    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2563        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2564
2565    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2568
2569        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2570            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2571            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2572
2573        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2574
2575        if default:
2576            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2577
2578        statements.append("END")
2579
2580        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2581            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2582
2583        return " ".join(statements)
2584
2585    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2588        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2589
2590    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2591        order = expression.args.get("order")
2592        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2593        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2594
2595    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2597        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2598        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2599
2600    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2601        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2602
2603        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2604            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2605        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2606            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2607        else:
2608            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2609
2610    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2611        args = expression.expressions
2612        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2613            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2614
2615        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2616            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2617
2618        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2619            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2620
2621        return args
2622
2623    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2624        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2625
2626        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2627        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2628            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2629
2630        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2631
2632    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2633        return self.func(
2634            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2635        )
2636
2637    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2639        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2640
2641    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2643        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2644        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2645        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2646        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2647        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2648        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2649        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2650
2651    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2652        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2653        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2654        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2655        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2656
2657    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2658        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2659
2660    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2661        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2662        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2663        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2664
2665    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2667
2668    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2669        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2670        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2671            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2672
2673        return path
2674
2675    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2676        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2677            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2678            if not callable(transform):
2679                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2680                return ""
2681
2682            return transform(self, expression)
2683
2684        if isinstance(expression, int):
2685            return str(expression)
2686
2687        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2688            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2689            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2690        else:
2691            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2692            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2693
2694        return escaped
2695
2696    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2698
2699    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2700        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2701        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2702
2703        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2704        if unique_keys is not None:
2705            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2706        else:
2707            unique_keys = ""
2708
2709        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2710        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2711        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2712        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2713
2714        return self.func(
2715            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2716            *expression.expressions,
2717            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2718        )
2719
2720    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2721        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2722
2723    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2724        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2725        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2726        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2727        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2728        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2729        return self.func(
2730            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2731        )
2732
2733    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2735        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2736        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2737        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2738        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2739        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2740        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2741        return self.func(
2742            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2743            this,
2744            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2745        )
2746
2747    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2748        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2749        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2750        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2751
2752        if nested_schema:
2753            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2754
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2757        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2758        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2759
2760    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2761        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2762
2763    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2766        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2767        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2768        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2769        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2770        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2771        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2772        return self.func(
2773            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2774        )
2775
2776    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2779        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2780        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2781        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2782        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2783
2784    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2787        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2788        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2789        with_ = (
2790            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2791            if expressions
2792            else ""
2793        )
2794        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2795
2796    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2797        query = expression.args.get("query")
2798        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2799        field = expression.args.get("field")
2800        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2801
2802        if query:
2803            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2804        elif unnest:
2805            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2806        elif field:
2807            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2808        else:
2809            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2810
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2812
2813    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2814        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2815
2816    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2817        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2818        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2819            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2820        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2821
2822        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2823            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2824            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2825
2826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2827        if this:
2828            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2829            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2830
2831        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2832
2833    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2834        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2835
2836    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2839        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2840        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2841        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2842        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2843
2844    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2845        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2846
2847    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2848        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2849        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2850
2851    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2852        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2853        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2855        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2856
2857    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2858        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2859
2860    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2861        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2862        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2863        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2864
2865    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2866        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2867        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2868
2869        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2870            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2871        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2872            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2873
2874        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2875
2876    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2878
2879    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2881        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2882        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2883
2884    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2887        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2888
2889    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2891        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2892        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2893
2894    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2895        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2896
2897    def and_sql(
2898        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2899    ) -> str:
2900        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2901
2902    def or_sql(
2903        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2904    ) -> str:
2905        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2906
2907    def xor_sql(
2908        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2909    ) -> str:
2910        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2911
2912    def connector_sql(
2913        self,
2914        expression: exp.Connector,
2915        op: str,
2916        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2917    ) -> str:
2918        if stack is not None:
2919            if expression.expressions:
2920                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2921            else:
2922                stack.append(expression.right)
2923                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2924                    for comment in expression.comments:
2925                        if comment:
2926                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2927                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2928            return op
2929
2930        stack = [expression]
2931        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2932        ops = set()
2933
2934        while stack:
2935            node = stack.pop()
2936            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2937                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2938            else:
2939                sql = self.sql(node)
2940                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2941                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2942                else:
2943                    sqls.append(sql)
2944
2945        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2946        return sep.join(sqls)
2947
2948    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2949        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2950
2951    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2952        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2953
2954    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2955        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2956
2957    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2958        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2959
2960    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2961        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2962
2963    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2964        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2965
2966    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2967        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2968        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2969        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2970        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2971        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2972        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2973        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2974
2975    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2976        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2978
2979    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2980        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2981
2982    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2983        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2984            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2985        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2986
2987    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2989
2990    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2992        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2993        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2994        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2995        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2996        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2997
2998    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3001        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3002        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3003        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3004        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3005        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3006        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3007        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3008
3009    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3010        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3011        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3012        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3013        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3014
3015        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3016            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3017
3018        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3019
3020    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3021        return "BEGIN"
3022
3023    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3024        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3025        if chain is not None:
3026            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3027
3028        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3029
3030    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3031        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3032        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3033        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3034
3035    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037
3038        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3039        if dtype:
3040            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3041            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3042            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3043            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3044            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3045
3046        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3047        if default:
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3049
3050        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3051        if comment:
3052            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3053
3054        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3055        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3056
3057        if not drop and not allow_null:
3058            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3059
3060        if allow_null is not None:
3061            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3062            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3063
3064        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3065
3066    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3069            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3070        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3071
3072    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3073        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3076        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3077        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3078
3079    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3080        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3081            # Remove db from tables
3082            expression = expression.transform(
3083                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3084            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3087
3088    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3089        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3090        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3092        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3093
3094    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3095        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3096        return f"SET {exprs}"
3097
3098    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3099        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3100
3101        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3102            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3103        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3105        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3106            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3107        else:
3108            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3109
3110        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3111        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3112        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3113        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3114        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3115        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3116        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3117
3118    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3119        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3120            return self.expressions(
3121                expression,
3122                key="actions",
3123                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3124            )
3125        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3126
3127    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3128        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3129        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3130        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3131
3132    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3133        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3134
3135    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3136        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3137
3138        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3139            case = exp.case()
3140            for arg in expression.expressions:
3141                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3142            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3143
3144        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3145
3146        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3147        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3148        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3149
3150    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3151        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3152
3153    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3154        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3155
3156    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3157        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3158        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3159        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3160        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3161
3162    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3163        return self.sql(
3164            exp.Cast(
3165                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3166                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3167            )
3168        )
3169
3170    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3171        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3172            return self.func(
3173                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3174            )
3175        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3176
3177    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3178        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3179
3180        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3181            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3182
3183        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3184            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3185                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3186
3187        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3188            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3189                return self.sql(
3190                    exp.cast(
3191                        l / r,
3192                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3193                    )
3194                )
3195
3196        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3197
3198    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3199        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3200
3201    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3203
3204    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3205        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3206
3207    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3209
3210    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3212
3213    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3214        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3215
3216    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3217        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3218
3219    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3221
3222    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3224
3225    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3227
3228    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3230
3231    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3232        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3233            return self.sql(
3234                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3235            )
3236        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3237
3238    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3240
3241    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3243
3244    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3246
3247    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3249
3250    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3252
3253    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3255
3256    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3258
3259    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3261
3262    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3264
3265    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3267
3268    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3270
3271    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3273
3274    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3275        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3276
3277    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3278        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3279            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3280            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3281
3282        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3283
3284    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3285        this = expression.this
3286        expr = expression.expression
3287
3288        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3289            this, expr = expr, this
3290        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3291            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3292                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3293
3294            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3295
3296        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3297
3298    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3299        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3300        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3302        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3303        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3304
3305    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3306        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3307        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3308
3309    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3310        args = []
3311
3312        for key in expression.arg_types:
3313            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3314
3315            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3316                for value in arg_value:
3317                    args.append(value)
3318            elif arg_value is not None:
3319                args.append(arg_value)
3320
3321        if self.normalize_functions:
3322            name = expression.sql_name()
3323        else:
3324            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3325
3326        return self.func(name, *args)
3327
3328    def func(
3329        self,
3330        name: str,
3331        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3332        prefix: str = "(",
3333        suffix: str = ")",
3334    ) -> str:
3335        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3336
3337    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3338        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3339        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3340            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3341        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3342
3343    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3344        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3345
3346    def format_time(
3347        self,
3348        expression: exp.Expression,
3349        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3350        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3351    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3352        return format_time(
3353            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3354            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3355            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3356        )
3357
3358    def expressions(
3359        self,
3360        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3361        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3362        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3363        flat: bool = False,
3364        indent: bool = True,
3365        skip_first: bool = False,
3366        skip_last: bool = False,
3367        sep: str = ", ",
3368        prefix: str = "",
3369        dynamic: bool = False,
3370        new_line: bool = False,
3371    ) -> str:
3372        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3373
3374        if not expressions:
3375            return ""
3376
3377        if flat:
3378            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3379
3380        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3381
3382        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3383        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3384            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3385
3386        result_sqls = []
3387        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3388            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3389            if not sql:
3390                continue
3391
3392            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3393
3394            if self.pretty:
3395                if self.leading_comma:
3396                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3397                else:
3398                    result_sqls.append(
3399                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3400                    )
3401            else:
3402                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3403
3404        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3405            if new_line:
3406                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3407                result_sqls.append("")
3408            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3409        else:
3410            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3411        return (
3412            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3413            if indent
3414            else result_sql
3415        )
3416
3417    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3418        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3419        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3420        if flat:
3421            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3422        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3423
3424    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3425        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3426        if not property_name:
3427            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3428        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3429
3430    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3431        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3432
3433    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3434        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3435
3436    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3438        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3439        expressions = (
3440            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3441        )
3442        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3443
3444    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3446        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3447        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3448
3449    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3450        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3451
3452    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3453        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3454        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3455        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3456        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3457
3458        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3459        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3460            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3461            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3462            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3463            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3464        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3465            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3466                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3467            else:
3468                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3469        else:
3470            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3471        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3472
3473    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3474        table = expression.this
3475        table_alias = ""
3476
3477        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3478        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3479            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3480            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3481
3482        this = self.sql(table)
3483        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3484        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3486        sep = self.sep()
3487
3488        return self.prepend_ctes(
3489            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3490        )
3491
3492    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3493        if expression.args.get("format"):
3494            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3495
3496        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3497
3498    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3499        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3500            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3501            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3502
3503        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3504        if not fmt:
3505            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3506            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3507
3508        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3509
3510    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3513        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3514        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3515        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3516
3517    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3519        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3520        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3521        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3522
3523    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3524        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3525
3526    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3527        return ""
3528
3529    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3530        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3531        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3532        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3533        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3534        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3535
3536    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3538        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3539
3540        if having:
3541            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3542
3543        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3544
3545    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3546        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3547        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3548        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3549        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3550        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3551        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3552        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3553        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3554        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3555        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3556        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3557        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3558        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3559
3560    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3561        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3562        if key_block_size:
3563            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3564
3565        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3566        if using:
3567            return f"USING {using}"
3568
3569        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3570        if parser:
3571            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3572
3573        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3574        if comment:
3575            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3576
3577        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3578        if visible is not None:
3579            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3580
3581        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3582        if engine_attr:
3583            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3584
3585        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3586        if secondary_engine_attr:
3587            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3588
3589        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3590        return ""
3591
3592    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3593        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3594        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3595
3596    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3598        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3600        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3601        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3602        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3604        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3605        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3606        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3607        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3608
3609    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3610        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3611            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3612
3613        case = exp.Case().when(
3614            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3615            expression.args["true"],
3616            copy=False,
3617        )
3618        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3619        if else_cond:
3620            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3621
3622        return self.sql(case)
3623
3624    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3627        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3628        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3629        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3630        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3631
3632    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3634
3635    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3637
3638    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3639        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3640        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3641        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3642        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3643        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3644        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3645
3646    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3650
3651    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3653        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3654        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3655
3656    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3657        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3658
3659    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3660        arg = expression.this
3661        if not arg.type:
3662            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3663
3664            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3665
3666        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3667            return self.sql(arg)
3668
3669        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3670        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3671
3672    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3673        this = expression.this
3674        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3675            return self.sql(this)
3676
3677        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3678
3679    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3680        this = expression.this
3681        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3682            return self.sql(this)
3683
3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3685
3686    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3687        this = expression.this
3688        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3689
3690        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3691            return self.sql(
3692                exp.cast(
3693                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3694                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3695                )
3696            )
3697
3698        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3699            return self.sql(this)
3700
3701        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3702
3703    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3704        return self.sql(
3705            exp.func(
3706                "DATEDIFF",
3707                expression.this,
3708                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3709                "day",
3710            )
3711        )
3712
3713    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3714        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3715            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3716
3717        unit = expression.text("unit")
3718        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3719            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3720
3721        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3722
3723    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3724        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3725
3726        return self.func(
3727            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3728        )
3729
3730    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3731        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3732            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3733            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3734            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3735            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3736
3737        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3738
3739        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3740        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3741            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3742
3743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3744
3745    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3746        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3747        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3748
3749    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3750        expression.set(
3751            "expressions",
3752            [
3753                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3754                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3755                else e
3756                for e in expression.expressions
3757            ],
3758        )
3759
3760        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3761
3762    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3763        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3764        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3765
3766        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3767
3768    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3769        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3770        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3771
3772        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3773
3774        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3775        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3776
3777        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3778        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3779
3780        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3781        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3782
3783        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3784        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3785
3786        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3787
3788    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3789    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3790    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3791        to = expression.this
3792        value = expression.expression
3793        style = expression.args.get("style")
3794        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3795        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3796
3797        if not to or not value:
3798            return ""
3799
3800        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3801        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3802            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3803
3804        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3805        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3806
3807        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3808        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3809            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3810
3811            style_value = style.name
3812            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3813            if not converted_style:
3814                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3815
3816            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3817
3818            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3819                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3820            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3821                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3822            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3823                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3824            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3825                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3826
3827        if not transformed:
3828            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3829
3830        return self.sql(transformed)
3831
3832    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3833        this = expression.this
3834        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3835            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3836            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3837
3838        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3839            return f".{this}"
3840
3841        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3842        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3843
3844    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3845        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3846        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3847
3848    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3849        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3850            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3851
3852            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3853
3854        return expression
3855
3856    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3857        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3858            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3859            mods = sorted(
3860                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3861                key=lambda x: 0
3862                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3863                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3864            )
3865
3866            if mods:
3867                mod = mods[0]
3868                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3869                this.meta["inline"] = True
3870                mod.this.replace(this)
3871                return self.sql(expression.this)
3872
3873            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3874
3875            if agg_func:
3876                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3877
3878        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3879
3880    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3881        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3882        if self.pretty:
3883            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3884        return string
3885
3886    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3887        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3888
3889        if expression.expressions:
3890            upper = option.upper()
3891
3892            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3893            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3894
3895            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3896            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3897            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3898            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3899
3900        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3901
3902        if not value:
3903            return option
3904
3905        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3906
3907        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3908
3909    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3910        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3911        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3912            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3913            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3914            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3915        else:
3916            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3917            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3918            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3919
3920        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3921        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3922
3923        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3924        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3925
3926        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3927        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3928
3929        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3930        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3931
3932        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3933
3934    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3936        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3937
3938        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3939        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3940        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3941        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3942
3943        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3944        params = self.expressions(
3945            expression,
3946            key="params",
3947            sep=sep,
3948            new_line=True,
3949            skip_last=True,
3950            skip_first=True,
3951            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3952        )
3953
3954        if params:
3955            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3956                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3957            elif not self.pretty:
3958                params = f" {params}"
3959
3960        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3961
3962    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3963        return ""
3964
3965    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3966        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3967        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3968        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3969        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3970        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3971
3972        if filter_col or retention_period:
3973            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3974
3975        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3976
3977    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3978        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3979    ) -> str:
3980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3981        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3982        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3983        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3984
3985    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3987        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3988        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3989
3990    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3991        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3992
3993    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3995        expr = expression.expression
3996
3997        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3998            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3999            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4000        else:
4001            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4002
4003        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4004
4005    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4006        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4007            return self.sql(expression.this)
4008
4009        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4010
4011    def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
4012        return self.func("LENGTH", expression.this)
4013
4014    def strtodate_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToDate) -> str:
4015        return self.func("STR_TO_DATE", expression.this, expression.args.get("format"))
4016
4017    def strtotime_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToTime) -> str:
4018        return self.func(
4019            "STR_TO_TIME",
4020            expression.this,
4021            expression.args.get("format"),
4022            expression.args.get("zone"),
4023        )

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
572    def __init__(
573        self,
574        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
575        identify: str | bool = False,
576        normalize: bool = False,
577        pad: int = 2,
578        indent: int = 2,
579        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
580        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
581        max_unsupported: int = 3,
582        leading_comma: bool = False,
583        max_text_width: int = 80,
584        comments: bool = True,
585        dialect: DialectType = None,
586    ):
587        import sqlglot
588        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
589
590        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
591        self.identify = identify
592        self.normalize = normalize
593        self.pad = pad
594        self._indent = indent
595        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
596        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
597        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
598        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
599        self.comments = comments
600        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
601
602        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
603        self.normalize_functions = (
604            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
605        )
606
607        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
608        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
609            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
610        )
611        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
612            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
613        )
614
615        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
617    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
618        """
619        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
620
621        Args:
622            expression: The syntax tree.
623            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
624                it is safer to copy.
625
626        Returns:
627            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
628        """
629        if copy:
630            expression = expression.copy()
631
632        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
633
634        self.unsupported_messages = []
635        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
636
637        if self.pretty:
638            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
639
640        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
641            return sql
642
643        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
644            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
645                logger.warning(msg)
646        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
647            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
648
649        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
651    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
652        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
653        if (
654            not expression.parent
655            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
656            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
657        ):
658            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
659
660            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
661
662        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
663            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
664
665            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
666
667        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
669    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
670        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
671            raise UnsupportedError(message)
672        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
674    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
675        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
677    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
678        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
680    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
681        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
682        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
683        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
685    def maybe_comment(
686        self,
687        sql: str,
688        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
689        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
690        separated: bool = False,
691    ) -> str:
692        comments = (
693            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
694            if self.comments
695            else None
696        )
697
698        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
699            return sql
700
701        comments_sql = " ".join(
702            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
703        )
704
705        if not comments_sql:
706            return sql
707
708        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
709
710        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
711            return (
712                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
713                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
714                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
715            )
716
717        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
719    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
720        this_sql = (
721            self.sql(expression)
722            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
723            else self.sql(expression, "this")
724        )
725        if not this_sql:
726            return "()"
727
728        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
729        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
731    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
732        original = self.identify
733        self.identify = False
734        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
735        self.identify = original
736        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
738    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
739        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
740            return name.upper()
741        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
742            return name.lower()
743        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
745    def indent(
746        self,
747        sql: str,
748        level: int = 0,
749        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
750        skip_first: bool = False,
751        skip_last: bool = False,
752    ) -> str:
753        if not self.pretty or not sql:
754            return sql
755
756        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
757        lines = sql.split("\n")
758
759        return "\n".join(
760            (
761                line
762                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
763                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
764            )
765            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
766        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
768    def sql(
769        self,
770        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
771        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
772        comment: bool = True,
773    ) -> str:
774        if not expression:
775            return ""
776
777        if isinstance(expression, str):
778            return expression
779
780        if key:
781            value = expression.args.get(key)
782            if value:
783                return self.sql(value)
784            return ""
785
786        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
787
788        if callable(transform):
789            sql = transform(self, expression)
790        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
791            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
792
793            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
794                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
795            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
796                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
797            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
798                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
799            else:
800                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
801        else:
802            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
803
804        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
806    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
807        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
808        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
809        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
811    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
812        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
813        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
814        options = expression.args.get("options")
815        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
816        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
817        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
818        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
819        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
821    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
822        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
823            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
824        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
825        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
827    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
828        return ".".join(
829            self.sql(part)
830            for part in (
831                expression.args.get("catalog"),
832                expression.args.get("db"),
833                expression.args.get("table"),
834                expression.args.get("this"),
835            )
836            if part
837        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
839    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
840        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
841
842        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
843            join_mark = ""
844            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
845
846        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
848    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
851        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
852        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
854    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
855        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
857        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
858        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
859        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
860        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
861        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
862        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
863
864        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
865            kind = ""
866
867        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
869    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
871        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
872        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
874    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
876        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
877            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
878        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
879            persisted = " PERSISTED"
880        else:
881            persisted = ""
882        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
884    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
885        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
887    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
888        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
889            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
890        else:
891            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
892
893        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
895    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
896        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
897    ) -> str:
898        this = ""
899        if expression.this is not None:
900            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
901            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
902
903        start = expression.args.get("start")
904        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
905        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
906        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
907        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
908        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
909        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
910        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
911        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
912        cycle_sql = ""
913
914        if cycle is not None:
915            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
916            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
917
918        sequence_opts = ""
919        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
920            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
921            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
922
923        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
924        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
925
926        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
928    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
929        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
930    ) -> str:
931        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
932        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
933        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
935    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
936        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
937    ) -> str:
938        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
940    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
941        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
943    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
944        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
947        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
948        if desc is not None:
949            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
950        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
952    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
954        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
955        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
956        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
957        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
958        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
959        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
961    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
962        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 964    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 966        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 967        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 968
 969        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 970
 971        properties_sql = ""
 972        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 973            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 974        ):
 975            properties_sql = self.sql(
 976                exp.Properties(
 977                    expressions=[
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 979                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 980                    ]
 981                )
 982            )
 983
 984            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 985                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 986            elif not self.pretty:
 987                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 988                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 989
 990        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 991        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 992
 993        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 994        if expression_sql:
 995            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 996
 997            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 998                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 999                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                        exp.Properties(
1001                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1002                        ),
1003                        wrapped=False,
1004                    )
1005                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1006                else:
1007                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1008
1009        postindex_props_sql = ""
1010        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1011            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1012                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1013                wrapped=False,
1014                prefix=" ",
1015            )
1016
1017        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1018        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1019        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1020
1021        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1022        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1023
1024        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1026            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1028                sep=" ",
1029                prefix=" ",
1030                wrapped=False,
1031            )
1032
1033        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1034
1035        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1036        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1037            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1038                exp.Properties(
1039                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1040                ),
1041                sep=" ",
1042                prefix=" ",
1043                wrapped=False,
1044            )
1045
1046        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1047        no_schema_binding = (
1048            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1049        )
1050
1051        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1052        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1053
1054        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1055        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1057    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1058        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1059        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1060        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1061        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1062        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1063        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1064        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1065        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1066        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1067        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1068
1069        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1070        if cache is None:
1071            cache_str = ""
1072        elif cache is True:
1073            cache_str = " CACHE"
1074        else:
1075            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1076
1077        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1078        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1079
1080        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1082    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1085        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1086        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1088    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1089        style = expression.args.get("style")
1090        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1091        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1093    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1094        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1095        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1097    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1098        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1099        if with_:
1100            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1101        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1103    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1104        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1105        recursive = (
1106            "RECURSIVE "
1107            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1108            else ""
1109        )
1110
1111        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1113    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1115
1116        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1117        if materialized is False:
1118            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1119        elif materialized:
1120            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1121
1122        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1124    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1125        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1127        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1128
1129        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1130            columns = ""
1131            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1132
1133        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1134            alias = self._next_name()
1135
1136        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1138    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1142        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1144    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1147            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1148        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1150    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1152        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1153            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1154        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1156    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1159
1160        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1161            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1162            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1163        else:
1164            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1165            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1166
1167        if escape:
1168            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1169            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1170        else:
1171            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1172            escape_sql = ""
1173
1174        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1175            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1176
1177        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1179    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1180        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1181        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1183    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1186        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1187        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1189    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1190        type_value = expression.this
1191
1192        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1193            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1194        else:
1195            type_sql = (
1196                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1197                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1198                else type_value
1199            )
1200
1201        nested = ""
1202        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1203        values = ""
1204
1205        if interior:
1206            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1207                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1208                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1209                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1210                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1211                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1212            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1213                nested = f" {interior}"
1214            else:
1215                nested = f"({interior})"
1216
1217        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1218        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1219            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1220            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1221        ):
1222            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1223
1224        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1226    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1227        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1228        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1229        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1230        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1232    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1235        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1236        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1237        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1239        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1240        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1241        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1242        if self.RETURNING_END:
1243            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1244        else:
1245            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1246        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1248    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1251        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1252        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1253        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1256        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1257        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1258        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1259        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1260        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1261        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1263    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1264        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1266    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1267        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1269    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1270        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1271        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1272        count = expression.args.get("count")
1273        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1274        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1275            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1276        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1277        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1279    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1280        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1281            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1283            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1284
1285        agg = expression.this
1286        agg_arg = agg.this
1287        cond = expression.expression.this
1288        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1289        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1291    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1292        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1293            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1294            return ""
1295
1296        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1298    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1299        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1300        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1301        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1302        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1303        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1304        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1305        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1306        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1307        if include:
1308            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1309        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1310        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1311        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1312        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1313        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1314        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1315
1316        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1318    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1319        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1320        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1321        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1322        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1324        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1325        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1326
1327        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1328
1329        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1330        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1332    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1333        text = expression.name
1334        lower = text.lower()
1335        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1336        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1337        if (
1338            expression.quoted
1339            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1340            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1341            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1342        ):
1343            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1344        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1346    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1347        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1348        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1349            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1350
1351        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1353    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1354        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1355        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1356            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1357        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1359    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1360        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1361        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1362        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1363        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1364        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1366    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1367        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1368        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1370    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1371        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1373    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1374        root_properties = []
1375        with_properties = []
1376
1377        for p in expression.expressions:
1378            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1379            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1380                with_properties.append(p)
1381            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1382                root_properties.append(p)
1383
1384        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1385        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1386
1387        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1388            with_props = " " + with_props
1389
1390        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1392    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1393        if properties.expressions:
1394            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1395        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1397    def properties(
1398        self,
1399        properties: exp.Properties,
1400        prefix: str = "",
1401        sep: str = ", ",
1402        suffix: str = "",
1403        wrapped: bool = True,
1404    ) -> str:
1405        if properties.expressions:
1406            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1407            if expressions:
1408                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1409                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1410        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1412    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1413        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1415    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1416        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1417        for p in properties.expressions:
1418            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1419            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1420                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1421            else:
1422                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1423
1424        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1426    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1427        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1428            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1429        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1431    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1432        property_cls = expression.__class__
1433        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1434            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1435
1436        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1437        if not property_name:
1438            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1439
1440        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1442    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1443        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1444            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1445            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1446
1447            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1448            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1449                like = f"({like})"
1450
1451            return like
1452
1453        if expression.expressions:
1454            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1455
1456        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1457        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1459    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1460        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1461        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1462        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1464    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1465        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1466        local = expression.args.get("local")
1467        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1468        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1469        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1470        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1471        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1473    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1474        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1475        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1476        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1478    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1479        if expression.args.get("default"):
1480            property = "DEFAULT"
1481        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1482            property = "ON"
1483        else:
1484            property = "OFF"
1485        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1487    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1488        if expression.args.get("no"):
1489            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1490        if expression.args.get("default"):
1491            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1492
1493        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1494        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1496    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1497        default = expression.args.get("default")
1498        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1499        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1500        if default or minimum or maximum:
1501            if default:
1502                prop = "DEFAULT"
1503            elif minimum:
1504                prop = "MINIMUM"
1505            else:
1506                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1507            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1508        units = expression.args.get("units")
1509        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1510        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1512    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1513        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1514        always = expression.args.get("always")
1515        default = expression.args.get("default")
1516        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1517        never = expression.args.get("never")
1518
1519        if autotemp is not None:
1520            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1521        elif always:
1522            prop = "ALWAYS"
1523        elif default:
1524            prop = "DEFAULT"
1525        elif manual:
1526            prop = "MANUAL"
1527        elif never:
1528            prop = "NEVER"
1529        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1531    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1532        no = expression.args.get("no")
1533        no = " NO" if no else ""
1534        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1535        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1536        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1537        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1538        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1540    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1541        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1542            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1543        if expression.this:
1544            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1545            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1546            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1547
1548        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1549        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1550        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1552    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1554
1555        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1556        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1557            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1558        else:
1559            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1560
1561        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1563    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1564        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1565        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1566        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1567        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1568        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1569        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1570        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1572    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1573        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1574        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1575        statistics_sql = ""
1576        if statistics is not None:
1577            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1578        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1580    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1583        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1584        data_consistency = (
1585            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1586        )
1587        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1588        retention_period = (
1589            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1590        )
1591
1592        if this:
1593            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1594        else:
1595            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1596
1597        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1598
1599        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1601    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1602        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1603        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1604
1605        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1606            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1607        else:
1608            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1609
1610        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1611        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1612        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1613        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1614        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1615        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1616        if is_function:
1617            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1618        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1619
1620        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1621        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1622        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1623        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1624        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1625        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1626        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1627        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1628
1629        if self.RETURNING_END:
1630            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1631        else:
1632            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1633
1634        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1635        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1637    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1638        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1640    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1641        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1643    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1644        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1646    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1647        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1648        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1650        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1651        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1653    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1654        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1656    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1657        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1659    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1660        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1661
1662        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1663        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1664
1665        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1666        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1667        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1668
1669        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1670        if expressions:
1671            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1672            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1673
1674        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1676    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1677        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1679    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1680        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1681        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1682        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1683        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1684        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1685        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1686        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1687        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1688        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1689        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1690        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1691        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1692        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1694    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1695        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1697    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1698        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1699        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1700        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1701        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1703    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1706        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1707        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1709    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1710        return ".".join(
1711            self.sql(part)
1712            for part in (
1713                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1714                expression.args.get("db"),
1715                expression.args.get("this"),
1716            )
1717            if part is not None
1718        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1720    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1721        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1722        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1723        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1724        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1725        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1726        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1728        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1729        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1730        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1731        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1732        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1733        joins = self.indent(
1734            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1735        )
1736        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1737
1738        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1739        if file_format:
1740            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1741            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1742            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1743
1744        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1745        if ordinality:
1746            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1747            alias = ""
1748
1749        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1750        if when:
1751            table = f"{table} {when}"
1752
1753        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1755    def tablesample_sql(
1756        self,
1757        expression: exp.TableSample,
1758        sep: str = " AS ",
1759        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1760    ) -> str:
1761        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1762            table = expression.this.copy()
1763            table.set("alias", None)
1764            this = self.sql(table)
1765            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1766        else:
1767            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768            alias = ""
1769
1770        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1771        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1772        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1773        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1774        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1775        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1776        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1777        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1778        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1779
1780        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1781        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1782            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1783
1784        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1785        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1786            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1787
1788        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1789        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1790            expr = f"({expr})"
1791
1792        return (
1793            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1794        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1796    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1797        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1798
1799        if expression.this:
1800            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801            if not expressions:
1802                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1803
1804            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1805            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1806            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1807            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1808            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1809
1810        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1811        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1812        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1813        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1814        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1815        if include_nulls is not None:
1816            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1817        else:
1818            nulls = ""
1819        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1821    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1822        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1823        kind = expression.text("kind")
1824        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1825        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1827    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1828        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1830    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1834        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1836        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1837        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1838        if self.RETURNING_END:
1839            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1840        else:
1841            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1842        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1843        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1845    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1846        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1847
1848        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1849        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1850            args = self.expressions(expression)
1851            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1853            values = (
1854                f"({values})"
1855                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1856                else values
1857            )
1858            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1859
1860        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1861        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1862        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1863
1864        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1865
1866        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1867            row = tup.expressions
1868
1869            if i == 0 and column_names:
1870                row = [
1871                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1872                ]
1873
1874            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1875
1876        if self.pretty:
1877            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1878            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1879            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1880            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1881            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1882
1883        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1884        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1885        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1887    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1888        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1890    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1891        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1892        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1893        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1895    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1896        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1898    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1899        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1900        if group_by_all is True:
1901            modifier = " ALL"
1902        elif group_by_all is False:
1903            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1904        else:
1905            modifier = ""
1906
1907        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1908
1909        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1910        grouping_sets = (
1911            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1912        )
1913
1914        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1915        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1916            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1917        else:
1918            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1919            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1920
1921        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1922        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1923            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1924        else:
1925            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1926            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1927
1928        groupings = csv(
1929            grouping_sets,
1930            cube_sql,
1931            rollup_sql,
1932            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1933            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1934        )
1935
1936        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1937            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1938
1939        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1941    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1942        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1943        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1945    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1946        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1947        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1948        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1949        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1950        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1951        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1953    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1954        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1956    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1957        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1958            side = None
1959        else:
1960            side = expression.side
1961
1962        op_sql = " ".join(
1963            op
1964            for op in (
1965                expression.method,
1966                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1967                side,
1968                expression.kind,
1969                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1970            )
1971            if op
1972        )
1973        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1974        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1975        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1976        using = expression.args.get("using")
1977
1978        if not on_sql and using:
1979            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1980
1981        this = expression.this
1982        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1983
1984        if on_sql:
1985            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1986            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1987            if using:
1988                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1989            else:
1990                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1991        elif not op_sql:
1992            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1993                return f" {this_sql}"
1994
1995            return f", {this_sql}"
1996
1997        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1998            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1999
2000        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2002    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2003        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2004        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2005        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2007    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2008        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2009
2010        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2011        if cross_apply is True:
2012            op = "INNER JOIN "
2013        elif cross_apply is False:
2014            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2015        else:
2016            op = ""
2017
2018        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2020    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022
2023        if expression.args.get("view"):
2024            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2025            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2026            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2027            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2028            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2029            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2030
2031        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2032        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2033        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2035    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037
2038        args = [
2039            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2040            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2041            if e
2042        ]
2043
2044        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2045        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2046        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2047        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2048
2049        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2051    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2053        value = expression.expression
2054        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2056        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2057        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2059    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2060        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2061        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2064        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2065        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2066        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2067        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2069    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2070        expressions = (
2071            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2072        )
2073        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2074        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2076    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2077        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2079    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2080        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2081            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2082            return ""
2083
2084        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2085        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2086        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2087        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2088
2089        if wait is not None:
2090            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2091                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2092            else:
2093                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2094
2095        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2097    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2098        text = expression.this or ""
2099        if expression.is_string:
2100            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2101        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2103    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2104        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2105            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2106            text = "".join(
2107                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2108            )
2109
2110        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2111            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2112        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2114    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2115        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2116        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2117        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2118        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2119        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2120        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2121        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2122        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2123        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2124        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2125        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2127    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2128        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2130    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2131        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2133    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2136        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2137        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2138        interpolated_values = [
2139            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2140            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2141        ]
2142        interpolate = (
2143            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2144        )
2145        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2147    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2148        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2149        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2150        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2151        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2152        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2153        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2154        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2156    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2157        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2159    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2160        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2162    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2163        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2165    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2166        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2167        asc = not desc
2168
2169        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2170        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2171        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2172        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2173        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2174
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176
2177        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2178        nulls_sort_change = ""
2179        if nulls_first and (
2180            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2181        ):
2182            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2183        elif (
2184            nulls_last
2185            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2186            and not nulls_are_last
2187        ):
2188            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2189
2190        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2191        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2192            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2193            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2194                self.unsupported(
2195                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2196                )
2197                nulls_sort_change = ""
2198            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2199                if expression.this.is_int:
2200                    self.unsupported(
2201                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2202                    )
2203                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2204                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2205                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2206                nulls_sort_change = ""
2207
2208        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2209        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2210
2211        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2213    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2214        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2215        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2216
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218
2219        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2221    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2222        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2223        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2224        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2225        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2226        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2227        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2228        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2229        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2230        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2231        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2232        definition_sqls = [
2233            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2234            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2235        ]
2236        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2237        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2238        body = "".join(
2239            (
2240                partition,
2241                order,
2242                measures,
2243                rows,
2244                after,
2245                pattern,
2246                define,
2247            )
2248        )
2249        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2250        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2251        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2253    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2254        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2255
2256        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2257            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2258        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2259            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2260
2261        return csv(
2262            *sqls,
2263            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2264            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2265            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2266            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2267            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2268            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2270            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2271            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2272            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2273            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2274            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2275            self.options_modifier(expression),
2276            sep="",
2277        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2279    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2280        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2281        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2283    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2284        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2286    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2287        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2288    ) -> t.List[str]:
2289        return [
2290            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2291            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2292        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2294    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2295        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2296        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2297        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2299    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2300        into = expression.args.get("into")
2301        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2302            into.pop()
2303
2304        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2305        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2306        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2307        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2308
2309        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2310        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2311            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2312            limit.pop()
2313        else:
2314            top = ""
2315
2316        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2317
2318        if kind:
2319            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2320                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2321            else:
2322                if kind == "STRUCT":
2323                    expressions = self.expressions(
2324                        sqls=[
2325                            self.sql(
2326                                exp.Struct(
2327                                    expressions=[
2328                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2329                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2330                                        else e
2331                                        for e in expression.expressions
2332                                    ]
2333                                )
2334                            )
2335                        ]
2336                    )
2337                kind = ""
2338
2339        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2340        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2341        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2342        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2343        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2344            expression,
2345            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2346            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2347            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2348        )
2349
2350        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2351
2352        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2353            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2354                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2355            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2356                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2357            else:
2358                table_kind = ""
2359            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2360
2361        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2363    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2366        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2368    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2369        if expression.expressions:
2370            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2371        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2373    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2374        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2375        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2376        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2377        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2378        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2379        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2380        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2382    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2386    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        kind = expression.text("kind")
2389        if kind:
2390            kind = f"{kind}."
2391        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2393    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2394        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2396    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2397        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2398        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2399
2400        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2401        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2402
2403        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2404        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2406    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2407        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2408        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2410    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2411        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2412            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2413            order = expression.args.get("order")
2414
2415            if limit or order:
2416                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2417
2418                if limit:
2419                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2420                if order:
2421                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2422                return self.sql(select)
2423
2424        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2425        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2426
2427        while stack:
2428            node = stack.pop()
2429
2430            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2431                stack.append(node.expression)
2432                stack.append(
2433                    self.maybe_comment(
2434                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2435                        comments=node.comments,
2436                        separated=True,
2437                    )
2438                )
2439                stack.append(node.this)
2440            else:
2441                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2442
2443        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2444        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2445        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2447    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2448        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2450    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2451        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2452        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2453        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2454        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2456    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2457        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458
2459        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2460        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2461
2462        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2463            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2464                alias.append("columns", offset)
2465
2466        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2467            columns = alias.columns
2468            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2469        else:
2470            alias = self.sql(alias)
2471
2472        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2473        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2474            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2475        else:
2476            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2477                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2478            elif offset:
2479                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2480            else:
2481                suffix = alias
2482
2483        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2485    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2486        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2488    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2489        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2490        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2492    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2495        order = expression.args.get("order")
2496        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2497        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2498        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2499        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2500
2501        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2502
2503        first = expression.args.get("first")
2504        if first is None:
2505            first = ""
2506        else:
2507            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2508
2509        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2510            return f"{this} {alias}"
2511
2512        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2513        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2515    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2516        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2517        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2519    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2520        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2521        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2522        end = (
2523            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2524            or "CURRENT ROW"
2525        )
2526        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2528    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2531        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2533    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2536        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2537        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2539    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2540        return apply_index_offset(
2541            expression.this,
2542            expression.expressions,
2543            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2544        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2546    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2547        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2548        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2549        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2551    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2552        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2554    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2557            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2558                this = self.wrap(this)
2559            return f"ANY{this}"
2560        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2562    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2563        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2565    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2568
2569        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2570            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2571            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2572
2573        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2574
2575        if default:
2576            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2577
2578        statements.append("END")
2579
2580        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2581            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2582
2583        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2585    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2588        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2590    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2591        order = expression.args.get("order")
2592        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2593        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2595    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2597        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2598        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2600    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2601        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2602
2603        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2604            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2605        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2606            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2607        else:
2608            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2610    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2611        args = expression.expressions
2612        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2613            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2614
2615        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2616            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2617
2618        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2619            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2620
2621        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2623    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2624        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2625
2626        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2627        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2628            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2629
2630        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2632    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2633        return self.func(
2634            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2635        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2637    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2639        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2643        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2644        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2645        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2646        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2647        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2648        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2649        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2651    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2652        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2653        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2654        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2655        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2657    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2658        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2660    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2661        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2662        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2663        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2665    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2668    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2669        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2670        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2671            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2672
2673        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2675    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2676        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2677            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2678            if not callable(transform):
2679                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2680                return ""
2681
2682            return transform(self, expression)
2683
2684        if isinstance(expression, int):
2685            return str(expression)
2686
2687        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2688            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2689            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2690        else:
2691            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2692            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2693
2694        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2696    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2699    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2700        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2701        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2702
2703        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2704        if unique_keys is not None:
2705            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2706        else:
2707            unique_keys = ""
2708
2709        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2710        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2711        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2712        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2713
2714        return self.func(
2715            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2716            *expression.expressions,
2717            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2718        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2720    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2721        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2723    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2724        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2725        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2726        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2727        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2728        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2729        return self.func(
2730            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2731        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2733    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2735        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2736        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2737        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2738        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2739        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2740        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2741        return self.func(
2742            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2743            this,
2744            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2745        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2747    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2748        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2749        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2750        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2751
2752        if nested_schema:
2753            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2754
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2757        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2758        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2760    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2761        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2763    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2766        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2767        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2768        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2769        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2770        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2771        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2772        return self.func(
2773            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2774        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2776    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2779        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2780        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2781        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2782        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2784    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2787        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2788        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2789        with_ = (
2790            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2791            if expressions
2792            else ""
2793        )
2794        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2796    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2797        query = expression.args.get("query")
2798        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2799        field = expression.args.get("field")
2800        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2801
2802        if query:
2803            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2804        elif unnest:
2805            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2806        elif field:
2807            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2808        else:
2809            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2810
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2813    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2814        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2816    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2817        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2818        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2819            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2820        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2821
2822        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2823            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2824            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2825
2826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2827        if this:
2828            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2829            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2830
2831        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2833    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2834        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2836    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2839        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2840        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2841        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2842        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2844    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2845        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2847    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2848        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2849        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2851    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2852        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2853        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2855        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2857    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2858        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2860    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2861        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2862        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2863        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2865    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2866        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2867        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2868
2869        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2870            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2871        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2872            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2873
2874        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2876    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2881        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2882        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2884    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2887        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2889    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2891        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2892        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2894    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2895        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2897    def and_sql(
2898        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2899    ) -> str:
2900        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2902    def or_sql(
2903        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2904    ) -> str:
2905        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2907    def xor_sql(
2908        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2909    ) -> str:
2910        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2912    def connector_sql(
2913        self,
2914        expression: exp.Connector,
2915        op: str,
2916        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2917    ) -> str:
2918        if stack is not None:
2919            if expression.expressions:
2920                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2921            else:
2922                stack.append(expression.right)
2923                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2924                    for comment in expression.comments:
2925                        if comment:
2926                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2927                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2928            return op
2929
2930        stack = [expression]
2931        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2932        ops = set()
2933
2934        while stack:
2935            node = stack.pop()
2936            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2937                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2938            else:
2939                sql = self.sql(node)
2940                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2941                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2942                else:
2943                    sqls.append(sql)
2944
2945        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2946        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2948    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2949        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2951    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2952        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2954    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2955        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2957    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2958        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2960    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2961        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2963    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2964        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2966    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2967        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2968        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2969        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2970        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2971        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2972        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2973        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2975    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2976        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2979    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2980        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2982    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2983        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2984            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2985        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2987    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2990    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2992        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2993        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2994        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2995        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2996        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2998    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3001        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3002        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3003        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3004        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3005        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3006        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3007        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3009    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3010        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3011        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3012        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3013        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3014
3015        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3016            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3017
3018        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3020    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3021        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3023    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3024        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3025        if chain is not None:
3026            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3027
3028        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3030    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3031        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3032        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3033        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3035    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037
3038        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3039        if dtype:
3040            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3041            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3042            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3043            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3044            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3045
3046        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3047        if default:
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3049
3050        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3051        if comment:
3052            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3053
3054        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3055        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3056
3057        if not drop and not allow_null:
3058            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3059
3060        if allow_null is not None:
3061            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3062            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3063
3064        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3066    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3069            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3070        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3072    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3073        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3076        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3077        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3079    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3080        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3081            # Remove db from tables
3082            expression = expression.transform(
3083                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3084            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3088    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3089        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3090        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3092        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3094    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3095        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3096        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3098    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3099        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3100
3101        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3102            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3103        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3105        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3106            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3107        else:
3108            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3109
3110        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3111        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3112        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3113        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3114        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3115        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3116        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3118    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3119        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3120            return self.expressions(
3121                expression,
3122                key="actions",
3123                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3124            )
3125        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3127    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3128        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3129        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3130        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3132    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3133        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3135    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3136        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3137
3138        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3139            case = exp.case()
3140            for arg in expression.expressions:
3141                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3142            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3143
3144        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3145
3146        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3147        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3148        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3150    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3151        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3153    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3154        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3156    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3157        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3158        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3159        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3160        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3162    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3163        return self.sql(
3164            exp.Cast(
3165                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3166                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3167            )
3168        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3170    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3171        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3172            return self.func(
3173                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3174            )
3175        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3177    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3178        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3179
3180        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3181            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3182
3183        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3184            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3185                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3186
3187        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3188            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3189                return self.sql(
3190                    exp.cast(
3191                        l / r,
3192                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3193                    )
3194                )
3195
3196        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3198    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3199        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3201    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3204    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3205        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3207    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3210    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3213    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3214        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3216    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3217        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3219    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3222    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3225    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3228    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3231    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3232        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3233            return self.sql(
3234                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3235            )
3236        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3238    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3241    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3244    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3247    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3250    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3253    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3256    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3259    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3262    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3265    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3268    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3271    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3274    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3275        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3277    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3278        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3279            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3280            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3281
3282        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3284    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3285        this = expression.this
3286        expr = expression.expression
3287
3288        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3289            this, expr = expr, this
3290        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3291            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3292                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3293
3294            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3295
3296        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3298    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3299        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3300        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3302        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3303        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3305    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3306        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3307        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3309    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3310        args = []
3311
3312        for key in expression.arg_types:
3313            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3314
3315            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3316                for value in arg_value:
3317                    args.append(value)
3318            elif arg_value is not None:
3319                args.append(arg_value)
3320
3321        if self.normalize_functions:
3322            name = expression.sql_name()
3323        else:
3324            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3325
3326        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3328    def func(
3329        self,
3330        name: str,
3331        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3332        prefix: str = "(",
3333        suffix: str = ")",
3334    ) -> str:
3335        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3337    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3338        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3339        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3340            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3341        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3343    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3344        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3346    def format_time(
3347        self,
3348        expression: exp.Expression,
3349        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3350        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3351    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3352        return format_time(
3353            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3354            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3355            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3356        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3358    def expressions(
3359        self,
3360        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3361        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3362        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3363        flat: bool = False,
3364        indent: bool = True,
3365        skip_first: bool = False,
3366        skip_last: bool = False,
3367        sep: str = ", ",
3368        prefix: str = "",
3369        dynamic: bool = False,
3370        new_line: bool = False,
3371    ) -> str:
3372        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3373
3374        if not expressions:
3375            return ""
3376
3377        if flat:
3378            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3379
3380        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3381
3382        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3383        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3384            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3385
3386        result_sqls = []
3387        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3388            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3389            if not sql:
3390                continue
3391
3392            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3393
3394            if self.pretty:
3395                if self.leading_comma:
3396                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3397                else:
3398                    result_sqls.append(
3399                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3400                    )
3401            else:
3402                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3403
3404        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3405            if new_line:
3406                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3407                result_sqls.append("")
3408            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3409        else:
3410            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3411        return (
3412            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3413            if indent
3414            else result_sql
3415        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3417    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3418        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3419        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3420        if flat:
3421            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3422        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3424    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3425        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3426        if not property_name:
3427            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3428        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3430    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3431        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3433    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3434        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3436    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3438        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3439        expressions = (
3440            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3441        )
3442        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3444    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3446        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3447        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3449    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3450        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3452    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3453        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3454        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3455        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3456        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3457
3458        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3459        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3460            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3461            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3462            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3463            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3464        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3465            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3466                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3467            else:
3468                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3469        else:
3470            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3471        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3473    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3474        table = expression.this
3475        table_alias = ""
3476
3477        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3478        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3479            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3480            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3481
3482        this = self.sql(table)
3483        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3484        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3486        sep = self.sep()
3487
3488        return self.prepend_ctes(
3489            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3490        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3492    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3493        if expression.args.get("format"):
3494            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3495
3496        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3498    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3499        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3500            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3501            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3502
3503        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3504        if not fmt:
3505            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3506            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3507
3508        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3510    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3513        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3514        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3515        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3517    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3519        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3520        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3521        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3523    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3524        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3526    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3527        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3529    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3530        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3531        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3532        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3533        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3534        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3536    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3538        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3539
3540        if having:
3541            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3542
3543        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3545    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3546        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3547        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3548        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3549        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3550        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3551        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3552        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3553        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3554        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3555        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3556        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3557        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3558        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3560    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3561        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3562        if key_block_size:
3563            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3564
3565        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3566        if using:
3567            return f"USING {using}"
3568
3569        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3570        if parser:
3571            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3572
3573        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3574        if comment:
3575            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3576
3577        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3578        if visible is not None:
3579            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3580
3581        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3582        if engine_attr:
3583            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3584
3585        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3586        if secondary_engine_attr:
3587            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3588
3589        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3590        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3593        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3594        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3596    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3598        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3600        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3601        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3602        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3604        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3605        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3606        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3607        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3609    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3610        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3611            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3612
3613        case = exp.Case().when(
3614            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3615            expression.args["true"],
3616            copy=False,
3617        )
3618        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3619        if else_cond:
3620            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3621
3622        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3624    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3627        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3628        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3629        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3630        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3632    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3635    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3638    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3639        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3640        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3641        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3642        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3643        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3644        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3646    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3651    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3653        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3654        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3656    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3657        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3659    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3660        arg = expression.this
3661        if not arg.type:
3662            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3663
3664            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3665
3666        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3667            return self.sql(arg)
3668
3669        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3670        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3672    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3673        this = expression.this
3674        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3675            return self.sql(this)
3676
3677        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3679    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3680        this = expression.this
3681        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3682            return self.sql(this)
3683
3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3686    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3687        this = expression.this
3688        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3689
3690        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3691            return self.sql(
3692                exp.cast(
3693                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3694                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3695                )
3696            )
3697
3698        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3699            return self.sql(this)
3700
3701        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3703    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3704        return self.sql(
3705            exp.func(
3706                "DATEDIFF",
3707                expression.this,
3708                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3709                "day",
3710            )
3711        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3713    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3714        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3715            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3716
3717        unit = expression.text("unit")
3718        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3719            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3720
3721        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3723    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3724        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3725
3726        return self.func(
3727            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3728        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3730    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3731        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3732            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3733            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3734            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3735            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3736
3737        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3738
3739        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3740        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3741            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3742
3743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3745    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3746        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3747        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3749    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3750        expression.set(
3751            "expressions",
3752            [
3753                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3754                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3755                else e
3756                for e in expression.expressions
3757            ],
3758        )
3759
3760        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3762    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3763        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3764        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3765
3766        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3768    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3769        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3770        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3771
3772        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3773
3774        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3775        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3776
3777        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3778        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3779
3780        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3781        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3782
3783        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3784        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3785
3786        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3790    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3791        to = expression.this
3792        value = expression.expression
3793        style = expression.args.get("style")
3794        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3795        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3796
3797        if not to or not value:
3798            return ""
3799
3800        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3801        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3802            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3803
3804        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3805        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3806
3807        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3808        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3809            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3810
3811            style_value = style.name
3812            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3813            if not converted_style:
3814                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3815
3816            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3817
3818            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3819                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3820            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3821                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3822            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3823                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3824            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3825                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3826
3827        if not transformed:
3828            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3829
3830        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3886    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3887        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3888
3889        if expression.expressions:
3890            upper = option.upper()
3891
3892            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3893            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3894
3895            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3896            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3897            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3898            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3899
3900        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3901
3902        if not value:
3903            return option
3904
3905        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3906
3907        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3909    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3910        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3911        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3912            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3913            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3914            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3915        else:
3916            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3917            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3918            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3919
3920        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3921        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3922
3923        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3924        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3925
3926        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3927        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3928
3929        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3930        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3931
3932        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3934    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3936        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3937
3938        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3939        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3940        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3941        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3942
3943        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3944        params = self.expressions(
3945            expression,
3946            key="params",
3947            sep=sep,
3948            new_line=True,
3949            skip_last=True,
3950            skip_first=True,
3951            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3952        )
3953
3954        if params:
3955            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3956                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3957            elif not self.pretty:
3958                params = f" {params}"
3959
3960        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3962    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3963        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3965    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3966        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3967        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3968        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3969        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3970        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3971
3972        if filter_col or retention_period:
3973            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3974
3975        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3977    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3978        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3979    ) -> str:
3980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3981        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3982        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3983        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3985    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3987        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3988        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3990    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3991        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3993    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3995        expr = expression.expression
3996
3997        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3998            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3999            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4000        else:
4001            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4002
4003        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4005    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4006        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4007            return self.sql(expression.this)
4008
4009        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def length_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Length) -> str:
4011    def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
4012        return self.func("LENGTH", expression.this)
def strtodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.StrToDate) -> str:
4014    def strtodate_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToDate) -> str:
4015        return self.func("STR_TO_DATE", expression.this, expression.args.get("format"))
def strtotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.StrToTime) -> str:
4017    def strtotime_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToTime) -> str:
4018        return self.func(
4019            "STR_TO_TIME",
4020            expression.this,
4021            expression.args.get("format"),
4022            expression.args.get("zone"),
4023        )